which touched, as she believed, her independence as a Sovereign State-her protest against allowing "to foreign agents and representatives" any "mission of official supervision" was not necessarily a casus belli; but whether Russia would make it so now became the great question of European interest.

CHAPTER V.

TURKEY AND THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR-continued.

Russia's View of her Mission- Imperial Manifesto, April 24--Prince Gortschakoff's Note -Invasion of Turkey by Russia, April 24-Protest of the Ottoman Government— Lord Derby's Despatch-The Ottoman Empire-Russian Army of the CaucasusTurkish Army on the Asiatic frontier-Salient Events of the commencement of the Campaign in Asia-In Europe the Russians cross the Pruth, April 24-The Rival Forces-Blowing up of Turkish Monitors-The Russians cross the Danube-The Emperor's Proclamation-Capture of Tirnova and Nicopolis-Reception of the Grand Duke Nicholas at Tirnova-General Gourko crosses the Balkans into Roumelia -Collapse of the Russian Campaign in Armenia-The Campaign in BulgariaDisastrous Actions before Plevna-Repulse of General Gourko's Force at EskiSagra-Conflicts in the Shipka Pass-The Capture of Loftcha-Osman Pasha's attack on the Russian left centre-His Defeat-Desperate assaults on the Turkish positions at Plevna by the Russian and Roumanian forces-Suleiman Pasha's renewed assault on Mount St. Nicholas-Shipka Pass-Battles on the Lom-Great Russian Victory in Armenia--Mukhtar Pasha's Army defeated-Battle of Kupri Koi-Collapse of Turkish defence in Asia-Fall of Kars-Investment of Plevna -Battle of Dolmy Dubnik-Other Russian successes-Favourable turn to the Turkish defence in Europe-Turkish Victory of Elena-Fall of Pievna-Development of Russia's strength in Bulgaria-Exhaustion of Turkey-Turkey's Circular Note inviting the Mediation of the European Powers-Opening of the Second Session of the Turkish Parliament--Atrocities.

TURKEY, as we have seen, contended that the Protocol of the European Powers was derogatory to her dignity and independence--a virtual abrogation of Article IX. of the Treaty of Paris-and rather than acknowledge it as binding upon her she preferred to face the alternative of war.

Russia, on the other hand, held a lofty view of her mission as the protector of the Sclavonic race. The normal government of the Sclavonic provinces of Turkey was believed to be one of injustice and oppression, varied by the grossest spoliation and outrage, which had recently culminated in the far-famed "Bulgarian atrocities"; and these had roused the passions of that large proportion of the population of Russia which was identical in blood and allied in sympathy with the suffering people of the adjoining provinces; while the pressure it exercised upon the counsels of Russia at this time was supposed to be great, if not irresistible.

Russia believed that the only remedy for the oppressed states or provinces was autonomy under foreign protection, and so one thing at least became evident-that when Russia and Turkey, the two principals in the quarrel, took such widely divergent and even antagonistic views there could be little hope that the peace of Europe would be preserved, and Europe looked forward with fore

boding; nor were its fears unfounded, for, with the next turn of the political kaleidoscope, all the subtleties of protocols and diplomacy vanished, and gave place to the unmistakable language-short, stern, and to the point-of war proclamations and addresses.

Russia had long been making great preparations behind the scenes, and massing her troops upon the Turkish frontier, and on April 24, without any ultimatum to Turkey, beyond the Protocol of March 31, an Imperial Manifesto appeared declaring war against the Porte. In this the Czar, addressing his "wellbeloved subjects," reminded them that his whole reign attested his solicitude to preserve for Russia the blessings of peace. He told them that by pacific negotiation he had sought, in concert with the great European Powers, to ameliorate the condition of the Christians in the East. But that his efforts having been of no avail-the Porte finally refusing to defer to the will of Europe as set forth in the joint Protocol-he was obliged "to proceed to more decisive acts"; he, that day, April 12 (24), "ordered his brave armies to cross the frontier."

In justification of this step, the Russian Cabinet addressed to its ambassadors at foreign courts a Circular Note, in which Prince Gortschakoff gave expression to its views regarding Turkey's refusal to acknowledge the joint Protocol of March 31, and the consequences of that refusal. It says that-"All the proposals made to the Porte as a result of the understanding come to between the Cabinets of Europe have been met by it with obstinate resistance." The Protocol of March 31 (suggested by the Imperial Cabinet, and the last expression of the united wishes of Europe) had "just been answered by the Porte, by a new refusal." There remained, therefore, " no other alternative than either to prolong a state of things which the Powers have declared to be incompatible with their interests, and with those of Europe in general, or to try and obtain by force what the unanimous attempts of the Cabinets have failed to obtain from the Porte by persuasion." And, in taking this step, his Imperial Majesty is persuaded that "he fulfils a duty imposed upon him by the interests of Russia," and likewise that "he is consulting at the same time the views and the interests of Europe."

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The Turkish Government immediately submitted to the European Powers an energetic protest against what she termed Russia's violation of international law. "Russia," it stated, "declared war ,"it against the Ottoman Empire by a Note communicated by Prince Gortschakoff to our Chargé d'Affairs at St. Petersburg on the morning of yesterday, the 24th, and which came into our hands the same day at the same moment, and, perhaps, even slightly before that. In any case, before this declaration was able to reach the Sublime Porte, the Russian army had commenced hostilities by invading the Asiatic frontier. In bringing these facts to the knowledge of the Government to which you are accredited, you will be good enough to point out everything that is abnormal

in such procedure and contrary to the rules usually observed by civilised states. I beg you to add that the Sublime Porte protests with all the more reason against such procedure because Russia has declared war without having had recourse to the mediation of the Powers, in accordance with the duty imposed upon it by Article VIII. of the Treaty of 1856. You will compare the contempt shown by Russia for international obligations with the care which the Sublime Porte has taken, since it recognised the imminence of a war with Russia, to engage the friendly Powers in making a formal demand of mediation as much in the interest of European peace as from a feeling of humanity. We hope that the Governments of Europe, as well as public opinion, will appreciate these acts, and take them into account when they will have to determine the share of responsibility which falls to each of the two States in the armed conflict which has just broken out."

Lord Derby answered Russia in an out-spoken despatch on May 1, and expressed to the Russian Cabinet the "deep regret" of the British Government at the independent and, as he contended, the unwarrantable course that Russia, leaving the European concert, had suddenly adopted. The other Powers did not reply to her Note.

In her Circular Note, Russia claimed to be the representative of the interests of Europe; but Lord Derby reminded her that by the Protocol of March 31 Europe willed that Turkey should be allowed time to carry out her promised reforms-that Turkey, in refusing her consent to that Protocol, had nevertheless reiterated her good intentions, and that Russia's isolated action was a distinct violation of the Treaty of Paris of 1871.

The Ottoman Empire, or the Osmanli Turkish nation (called by the Turks Osmanli-Vilayeti), includes Turkey Proper (which is under the direct rule of the Sultan and his Ministers) and various dependent or tributary states in Europe and Africa. Turkey Proper lies partly in Europe and partly in Asia. The European and Asiatic portions have an area of 158,090 square miles and 724,183 square miles respectively, thus making a total of 882,273 square miles. The European population is estimated at 9,669,000, the Asiatic at 16,325,000; so that the population of Turkey Proper may be taken approximately at 25,994,000; or according to other estimates at 28,500,000. Of this population about 13,000,000 are Turks or Osmanlis, the remainder consisting of races differing much in physical qualities, languages, and religion. In Europe, the Osmanlis probably do not exceed 2,000,000; but in Asia, chiefly in Asia Minor, they amount to 10,000,000 or 11,000,000. The European provinces are, as a rule, much more densely populated than the Asiatic. Turkey, it should be noted, draws her army from two-thirds, or from the Mohammedan portion of the population only. The dependent states in Europe are Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro. The Ottoman Empire is weak for its size. Its army, as we have said, is recruited only from the ruling

caste, and its various races have never amalgamated and become a united nation, like the Britons, Saxons, and Normans of our own early history, and the reason of this is to be found in the baneful oppression and tyranny which the proud Osmanlis have exercised for five centuries over the people of South-Eastern Europe.

On April 24, the very day on which the Emperor's war manifesto appeared, the Russian forces crossed the frontier in Asia, thus invading at once the territories of the Sultan, and in Europe they passed into Roumania, a state dependent upon Turkey; although, like Servia, it was practically little more so than in name. The war, therefore, began at the same time both in Europe and in Asia, and two distinct campaigns were carried on simultaneously. Before, however, we refer to the military movements of either campaign, it will be well to glance briefly at the country that became the theatre of war.

Asiatic Turkey includes Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdestan, the alluvial plains of Mesopotamia, Syria with Palestine (which may be used as a base of supplies by a Turkish army in Asia Minor), and a part of the Arabian Peninsula: thus stretching from the Ægean coast to Transcaucasian Russia, Persia, and the Persian Gulf. The great peninsula of Asia Minor, with an area probably of 270,000 square miles, is a high plateau, or table-land, sloping down to the Ægean Sea in bold, far-stretching, and well-wooded headlands. The coasts, especially those upon the Ægean Sea, are fertile; but the interior is mostly dry and barren. Armenia, on the southern slope of the Caucasus, is a high table-land, a considerable portion of which was ceded to Russia by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1827. Erzeroum and Kars, in Armenia, and Trebizonde, in Asia Minor, are not only towns of note, but places of great importance, in a military point of view. Trebizonde, built on the slope of a hill facing in part the Black Sea, is surrounded by a castellated wall, but not of sufficient strength to resist modern artillery. On its southern side it is shut in by wooded mountains that rise to a height of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. It is approached from the interior by one pass only.

Erzeroum, in Armenia, in a pashalic of the same name, and the centre of Turkish power in Asia, stands upon a plain 6,000 feet above the sea level, and, as may be supposed from its elevated situation, it suffers the extremes of heat and cold. Its double walls are flanked by square towers of much strength.

Kars, likewise in Armenia, and 150 miles from Erzeroum, is famous for its siege by the Russians in 1855. Its fortifications are of great strength, and, like its houses, are built of black basalt.

The Russians had a great advantage in possessing the province of Transcaucasia, as a base of operations, and a position of great strength, being backed by the Caucasus and flanked by the Caspian and Euxine Seas.

At the opening of the campaign, the total strength of the Russian army of the Caucasus was stated to be about 150,000 men,

of six divisions, commanded by the Grand Duke Michael Nicolajewich, assisted by divisional commanders.

The Turkish army on the frontier consisted, it was said, of 80,000 regular troops, 15,000 Circassians, 4,000 Kurds, and 25,000 militia--thus making a total of about 124,000 men. Of these 22,000 were stationed at Erzeroum, the head-quarters of the Turkish army, 28,000 at Kars, and 12,000 at Ardahan.

On April 24, the Russians crossed the frontier at three points, between Batoum and Bayazid, encountering the Turkish outposts, and advancing in three columns on Batoum, Kars, and Bayazid.

During the first few weeks of the campaign, the salient events were a battle before Kars, April 29 and 30, in which the Russians were victorious, a defeat of the Russians at Batoum, May 11, the capture of Sukhum Kalé, a Russian military post near the Turkish frontier, and the taking of Ardahan by the Russians.

In the action near Kars, the Turkish forces, commanded by Mukhtar Pasha, amounted, according to the Russians, to 60,000 men; the latter were 40,000 strong, and led by General Melikoff. The fighting was renewed on the 30th inst., the Russians having been reinforced during the night by two divisions and ten batteries, and they finally drove back the Turks under the guns of Kars.

Batoum is the most important port on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. At five o'clock on the morning of May 4, a portion of the right wing of the Russian army attacked in column a Turkish force strongly entrenched on the heights above the town; and it is to these two facts-that the assault was made in column, upon a force armed with the breech-loader and posted behind trenches-that military critics attributed the disaster. "The Ottoman troops were entrenched in their usual effective manner upon the slopes and ledges of the heights, defending Batoum on the land side, and they opened upon the columns of the enemy a terrible and well-sustained fire of cannon and musketry which literally mowed the Russians down in swathes. They fell by scores and hundreds on the plain below the Turkish positions, and during their attempts to make way against this fire, a body of Turkish horse and foot, taking advantage of the thick forest on the mountain side, broke forth upon the flank of the Russian column and effected a great slaughter."

By a bold dash at Sukhum Kalé, a Russian port and fortress at the foot of Caucasus, and on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, the Turks, May 14, carried war into the enemy's country and captured an important Russian military post, which might serve them as a base of operations, and enable them to arm the hill tribes, and organise an insurrection against Russia.

As a set-off to this surprise, the Russians carried Ardahan by assault, May 17. The Turkish garrison, reported to be 10,000 strong, fled without making any defence, their commander having previously beat a retreat. One hundred and twelve guns and