executed under his former sentence, by a writ of privy seal directed to the judges. But they held that their warrant for execution could not be issued, after so long a time had elapsed since the judgment, without bringing up the prisoner to plead. Raleigh, suffering under an ague, was brought on the 24th and again on the 28th of October to the King's Bench at Westminster. Execution was granted. Raleigh asked for a little delay to settle his affairs and his mind. He was brought out of his prison the next morning to die upon the scaffold, in the Old Palace Yard at Westminster. The end of this heroic man was worthy of the last of Elizabeth's heroes.

The execution of Raleigh took place at a time of extraordinary excite. ment in connection with foreign events. Bohemia had been in insurrection upon a question of the possession of some lands of the church which were held by Catholics; and the quarrel was under arbitration at the instance of the emperor Mathias when he died. Mathias was also king of Bohemia; and the archduke Ferdinand was chosen emperor. He had been recognised as successor to the throne of Bohemia; but he was a determined zealot of Catholicism; and the Bohemians, who held that their crown was elective, offered it to the Elector Palatine, who had been one of the arbitrators to settle the difference which had led to their insurrection. Frederic, after some hesitation, accepted the dangerous promotion, and was crowned at Prague, in November, 1619. The resolve was the signal for a general array of hostile forces throughout Europe. The Protestants of England were roused to an enthusiasm which had been repressed for years. Volunteers were ready to go forth full of zeal for the support of the Elector. James was professing an ardent desire to Protestant deputies to assist his son-in-law; and at the same time vowing to the Spanish ambassador that the alliance with his Catholic master, which was to be cemented by the marriage of prince Charles to the infanta, was the great desire of his heart. At length the Catholic powers entered the Palatinate; and the cry to arm was so loud amongst the English and the Scotch, that James reluctantly marshalled a force of four thousand volunteers, not to support his son-in-law upon the throne of Bohemia, but to assist in defending his hereditary dominions. The scanty assistance came too late. Frederic was defeated by the Austrians at Prague, on the 7th of November, 1620, which decisive battle entirely destroyed his slight tenure of power in Bohemia. He was very shortly after driven from the Palatinate, which was handed over to the tender mercies of the conquerors. The union of the Protestant princes was broken up. During the excitement of this conflict, James issued a proclamation forbidding any of his subjects to discourse of state-matters, either foreign or domestic. The Spanish ambassador, who dwelt in the bishop of Ely's house in Holborn, was obliged to have a guard of soldiers to protect him; and "when he passed at any time through London in his horse-litter, many were the curses and execrations the people bestowed upon him."

The parliament of 1621 was in no complacent mood. They gave the king a small subsidy in return for unusually gracious speeches; and then went boldly about the redress of grievances. They revived the use of the terrible word "impeachment," which had gone out of men's mouths for

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nearly two centuries. Monopolists were the first attacked with this constitutional weapon. Yelverton, the attorney-general, was connected with the prevailing corruption, and when detected denounced Villiers as his enemy. The judge of the Prerogative Court was impeached for venality; and the bishop of Llandaff for being accessory to a matter of bribery. Upon the highest branch of this rotten tree sat Francis Bacon, viscount St. Alban's, the great lord chancellor. He was charged by the Commons, before the Lords, with twenty-two acts of bribery and corruption. He attempted no defence. He saw that the court would not shield him, even if it had the power. He made a distinct confession in writing of the charges brought against him; and when a deputation from the Peers asked if that confession was his own voluntary act, he replied, "It is my act, my hand, my heart. O my lords, spare a broken reed." The sentence of the parliament was that the viscount St. Alban's, late lord chancellor, be fined 40,0007.; be imprisoned in the Tower during the king's pleasure; be made incapable to bear office in the commonwealth, to sit in parliament, or to come within the verge of the court. The king remitted the fine, and released the fallen man after an imprisonment of a few days. The House was in a fever about the Palatinate; and when it became known that a Roman Catholic barrister, Edward Floyd, had expressed his joy that "goodman Palsgrave and goodwife Palsgrave" had been driven from Prague, they went beyond their powers in passing a heavy sentence upon the unhappy man without hearing him. He appealed to the king, denying the accusation against him. He was then arraigned before the Lords, who confirmed the sentence, with additional severities. Whipping, which was a part of this sentence, was remitted on the motion of prince Charles. Floyd underwent the other unjust punishment,—to pay a fine of 50007., and to be imprisoned for life.

It was

The court had manifested no zeal about the question of the Palatinate; but the Commons made a solemn protestation, which was entered in the journals, that they would spend their lives and fortunes in the defence of their religion, and of the cause of the Elector. The Houses met again, after an interval of five months, on the 20th of November. announced that troops had been sent for the defence of the Palatinate under sir Horace Vere. The Commons voted a small subsidy, which was totally inadequate to any vigorous exertions. The clamour for warlike operations was not seconded by any liberality which could rouse James to exertion. The parliament had no confidence in a king who shuddered at & drawn sword.

Spain had agreed to co-operate in an attack upon Algiers, to suppress the outrages of the Barbary pirates; but she sent a very insufficient force to join the English flag. James directed the commander of his fleet, sir James Mansell, not to risk his ships. The Algerines, having had only a few boats burnt, defended their harbour, and Mansell came home with nothing achieved. The English merchantmen were now the prey of the African pirates, and the country bitterly complained of the national losses and the national dishonour. When the parliament re-assembled, it was in no conciliating humour: Lords Essex and Oxford had returned from the Palatinate, and proclaimed that the country of the Elector and the

Protestant cause were lost for want of timely aid. The Commons drew up a petition, prepared by Coke, against the growth of popery, urging that prince Charles should marry one of his own religion, and that the king should turn his attention towards that power which had first carried on the war in the Palatinate. That power was Spain. James had heard of this motion, and he anticipated the receipt of the petition by sending a violent letter to the Speaker, commanding the House not to meddle with any matter which concerned his government, or the mysteries of state. On the 18th of December, 1621, the Commons deliberately recorded their opinions as to their privileges in a memorable protestation, in which great men were concerned-Coke, Pym, Selden. Eminent peers, for almost the first time in the history of the country, took part with the Commons against the Crown. The king dissolved the parliament, and imprisoned the earl of Oxford, and the leading members of the Commons. again resorted to a Benevolence.

He then

James went on with his Spanish negotiation in utter defiance of the public feeling. In February, 1623, London was startled with the extraordinary news that the prince of Wales, and Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham, had gone off privately for Madrid. The negotiation for the marriage with the Spanish princess had been nearly concluded by the earl of Bristol, a special ambassador to the court of the young King Philip IV., the brother of the infanta. A dispensation from the Pope was only waited for; and James had himself written to his Holiness to urge the favour. He promised all sorts of toleration; and to give an earnest of his disposition, suddenly released from prison a large number of Popish recusants, to the great anger of the Puritans. The motives for the strange proceeding of the prince and the favourite remain a mystery. Charles took the name of John Smith, and the marquis was Thomas Smith. They reached Paris, and in their disguise had a peep at the court, and saw the princess Henrietta Maria, the lady whose good or evil destiny to be the future queen of England overruled that of the Spanish princess. On the 7th of March, they arrived at Madrid. The prince and his companion were seven months absent from England. To attempt to follow out the course of the intrigues that took place during this period, would be far beyond our limits. After a long course of deceit either to the court of Spain or to the people of England, or to both, Charles and Buckingham returned home. The ministers of Spain had interposed many vexatious delays whilst Charles was at Madrid, and had attempted to take advantage of his presence. The marriage-treaty was broken off, and there was universal rejoicing. Parliament met on the 19th of February, 1624. The king was all graciousness. It was resolved that a grant to the extent of £300,000 should be made, for the specific purpose of recovering the Palatinate; and the war was thus necessarily a war against Spain, united as she was with the other branch of the house of Austria in holding the dominions of the Elector and in endeavouring to destroy Protestantism in Europe. In this session of three months a great good was sought to be accomplished by the passing of a statute which declared all monopolies to be contrary to law, and all such grants to be void. In this last parliament of James, the Commons impeached Cranfield earl of Middlesex, lord treasurer of Eng

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land, for bribery and other misdemeanours. He was convicted, after a trial before the Peers, conducted by managers on the part of the Commons; was fined £50,000; and was declared incapable of sitting in parliament. Buckingham's jealousy of the lord treasurer's power is held to have contributed to this result. An army of 12,000 men was raised in England for the service of the Elector Palatine. Half the number were lost from sickness by being embarked in foul and crowded ships; and their commander, Count Mansfeldt, was not strong enough to undertake any offensive operations.

In March, 1625, King James was taken ill at Theobalds. He died on the 27th of that month, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and in the twentythird year of his reign.

CHAPTER XXIII.

CHARLES I. was proclaimed king on the day of his father's death. We are told that "the face of the court was much changed in the change of the king;" that the grossnesses of the court of James grew out of fashion.* From the first, Charles exhibited himself as temperate, chaste, and serious." The personal demeanour of the king compelled a corresponding outward show in the courtiers. But Buckingham was still the first in power, and the administration of government was unaltered. The marriage of Charles with the princess Henrietta Maria of France had been arranged by a treaty in the previous reign; and it was concluded by proxy even before James was laid in the tomb at Westminster. The young queen arrived at Dover on the 12th of June. On the 18th the parliament was opened by the king. Although the bonfires had been lighted in London for the king's marriage, the union with a Roman Catholic princess was in itself offensive; and Charles had given indications of concessions to the papists which were distinctly opposed to the existing laws. The popularity of Buckingham was fast passing away. Time had revealed the concessions which had been made to Rome in the negotiations for the Spanish marriage, and the people had learnt that concessions as strong had been made that Charles might wed this French lady. Henrietta brought twenty-nine priests in her train; and mass was celebrated at the palace on Sundays and saints' days.

In the House of Commons were the old opponents of the absolute kingship of James. When a supply was asked, they came to the hated question of unredressed grievances. They granted a very limited subsidy; and would only vote tonnage and poundage for one year. The plague was raging in London, and the parliament was adjourned to Oxford. When the king grew importunate for more supplies, the Commons complained of the

mismanagement of public affairs. An abrupt dissolution took place on the 12th of August.

Seven ships had been sent to the king of France, under pretence of serving against Austria; but they were employed against the French Protestants who were defending themselves at La Rochelle. When Frenchmen were taken on board, the English sailors deserted. To counteract the disgrace of this transaction, a great fleet was to be fitted out against Spain. Writs were issued under the privy seal, demanding loans from private persons. By these and other arbitrary means, a fleet of eighty sail was dispatched from the Downs in October, under vague instructions to intercept the Spanish treasure-ships, and to land an army on the coast of Spain. The command of this armament was given to a landsman, lord Wimbledon. The ten thousand English troops accomplished nothing, and a contagious disease breaking out, some thousands of the men died.

Committees were

A new parliament met on the 6th of February, 1626. appointed in both houses; and they traced the disgrace of the national flag, and the corruptions of the time, to Buckingham. When supplies were demanded, the Commons again required redress of wrongs. The king threatened that if they did not hasten for his supply it would be worse for themselves. The Commons locked their doors; and after a long deliberation resolved upon the impeachment of Buckingham. The business was committed to eight managers. The most eloquent man in the house, sir John Eliot, discharged his duty of summing up the charges, with a boldness that must have been appalling. He was instantly arrested, as well as sir Dudley Digges, who had opened the charges. The houso refused to proceed to any business whilst their privileges were thus violated. Digges made some submission and was speedily released. Eliot refused any compromise. After eight days' confinement in the Tower, he again took his place in the house. The king, with the impeachment hanging over the head of Buckingham, commanded the University of Cambridge to elect the obnoxious minister to its Chancellorship, then vacant. There was a spirited resistance to this ill-timed act of power; but the election of the duke was carried by a small majority. Buckingham had replied to the articles of impeachment; and had expressed his wish for a regular trial. The king interposed, and sent a peremptory message to the Commons, demanding a supply without condition. They drew up a remonstrance; and being suddenly summoned to the House of Peers, they found commissioners of the Crown assembled to dissolve the parliament. The king was on no better terms with the Lords than with the Commons. He had caused the earl of Arundel to be arrested, during the sitting of parliament, for some private offence. The Lords asserted their privilege that no peer should be arrested while the parliament was sitting, except for treason or felony, or for refusing "to give surety for the peace.' Arundel was discharged. The earl of Bristol, who was obnoxious to the court, as being the person best acquainted with the proceedings regarding the Spanish marriage, was not summoned to this parliament. The Peers insisted that the earl should take his place. He was then suddenly charged at the bar of the Lords as a traitor. The Peers demanded that Bristol should be allowed to make his accusation against Buckingham before the charge