...

...

Wemyss & March E. Lewisham V.

Perth & Melfort E. March E.

Manvers E.
Bradford E.
Kilmorey E.
Lanesborough E.
Abingdon E.
Guilford E.
Ranfurley E.
Lovelace E.
Airlie E.
Breadalbane M.
Ormonde M.
Rosse E.

Is well watered, but none of the rivers are navigable. Possesses fertile soils, and onethird of area under valuable forest. Sugar the main production; cacao, coffee, and spices neglected. Horses and cattle numerous. Poultry, game, and fish abundant. There are deer, peccaries, and other animals.-An Administrator presides over local councils, but all ordinances must be approved by general government and Governor of the Windward Islands. Revenue, £10,826, expenditure, £12,031; imports, £30,758, exports, £38,437. The price of land is high. The police is semimilitary, and there are two companies of Volunteers. British flag planted on Tobago Northumberland D. in 1580. The island passed to various owners subsequently, but has remained British since 1793. (Consult "Her Majesty's Colonies.")

Macclesfield E.
Chichester E.

Egmont E.

Harrington E.
Sheffield E.
Mexborough E.
Carnarvon E.
Carysfort E.

Dalhousie E.

Throwley V

Titchfield M.

Athole D.

Winterton E.

Coun

"

Togo-land. A German colony on the Slave Coast, Guinea. Area about 100 sq. m., pop. 100,000. Togo, Little Popo, Ague, and Great Popo, are four little territories lying between the Gold Coast colony and the Dahoman seaboard. Togo-land consists of a "beach, about twelve miles long, on which are the port-villages of Lóme, or Bē, Bagida, Porto Seguro, and Gum Koffi. Behind the beach is a lagoon, and then the "mainland," which extends inland about ten miles, lying round the Avon, or Hakko lagoon. The country is very populous, and is an outlet for considerable trade in palm oil and other produce. It is low, but fertile, growing pepper, indigo, cotton, and native fruits and vegetables. Togo, Gbomé, and Wo, are inland villages and markets. (Consult "Proceedings of the Acquired 1885. Royal Geographical Society," June 1885.)

Tonbridge School. See PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Tonic Sol-fa Method. See our edition of 1886.

Tonquin. A country of Indo-China, formerly a province of Annam, made a French colony in 1884. Area 34,615 sq. m., pop. 9,000,000. Capital Hanoi, on the Hanoi or Song-koi River. Country mountainous in the north, rich and fertile, but climate of lowlands unhealthy for Europeans. People hard-working fishers and agriculturists. Gold is among the minerals. French troops have for some time past been engaged in active operations, and the country is still in an unsettled condition towards the Chinese border. See ANNAM.

Toole, James Lawrence, was b. 1833. Educated at City of London School. After being for some time in a mercantile office, he joined the City Histrionic Club, and made his first appearance on the stage at the Haymarket Theatre (1852). Engaged under Mr. Dillon at Queen's Theatre, Dublin, and met with great success. Played at Belfast, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, and (1854) was engaged at St. James's Theatre, London, where he played in various characters of low comedy. Engaged afterwards at the Lyceum; and on the opening of New Adelphi Theatre became principal comedian. Makes a professional tour in the provinces every year, and visited the United States, America (1874), where he appeared at Wallack's Theatre, New York. On his return to England appeared at Gaiety Theatre (1875). At close of 1880 he commenced the management of the Folly Theatre, which he has had reconstructed and named after himself, "Toole's Theatre." His acting is distinguished

Tobago. A British West Indian island belonging to the Crown colony of the Windward Islands. Area 114 sq. m., pop. 118,051. Capital Scarborough. The island is divided into seven parishes. Consists of a mass of rocks rising steeply on the north-east and sloping to the south-west. The coast affords some fine bays.

by its faithful attachment to nature in all the parts he assumes.

Toronto (Indian "oaktrees rising from a lake"). Capital of Ontario (q.v.), pop. 120,000. Situated on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. Noteworthy for its university, and for its fine harbour.

Torrefied Barley. See our edition of 1886. Tortola. A West Indian island of the Virgin group, and chief of the Presidency of the Virgin Islands in the British federal colony of the Leeward Islands. Area 26 sq. m.; capital Roadtown. The island is a rocky mass, rising to 1,600 feet. Suffers from hurricanes. A little sugar and cotton grown; fisheries productive; cattle and poultry reared. First settled by pirates, who were expelled by English colonists in 1666.

Tortuga ("Little tortoise "). A West Indian island off the coast of and belonging to Venezuela.

Tower Bridge (London). See ENGINEERING.
Tractarlan Movement. See our edition of

1886.

handsome profit of 15 per cent. The AustroHungarian Vice-Consul at Singapore answers the question people have often asked, Why Europeans can never make mining pay in the Malay Peninsula. It appears that the mines are carried on by Chinese, and in a very primitive fashion. Much of the profit of the proprietors is derived from gambling houses and a retail trade in victuals. Something very similar, we believe, exists in the so-called "ruby mines" of Burmah. Cork could do a large trade in butter with Singapore if it pleased. Attention should be paid to the ornamentation of the label, and a narrow white paper ribbon should be fastened upon it, describing the contents in words. Sardines also are in large demand. The United States Consuls at Canton and Buenos Ayres strongly recommend the use of co-operative trading steamers to American manufacturers anxious to cultivate a trade with China. The experiment has been tried in Europe by France, Italy, Germany, and Sweden, and we believe that in no case have the results been very brilliant.-In the following Trade, Foreign, 1886. It is well known that month (February) the German Consul at the in spite of the improvements, or supposed im- Dardanelles explained why this and other provements, recently made by our Foreign countries are flooded with so much bad and Office in the mode of publishing consular spurious "olive oil." The fruit of the wild trade reports, the most valuable information olive, which is no larger than a sweet pea, conis not supplied solely by our representatives, tains but little oil. It is bitter and unpalatable, but often by the consuls of France, Germany, and the oil extracted from it can only be used Austria, Hungary, Italy, and the United States. for burning or lubricating. In the plantations, It is equally well known that English money however, there is a sun-dried olive as large as articles consist of a mass of figures and of a hazel nut. This is gathered in October or notices which have next to no interest for the November, and is rich in oil equal to the best merchant or manufacturer, who is far more French. Unfortunately there is a great scarcity concerned in acquiring information about the of oil presses, and the ripeness of the olive export and import trades of the world, than in itself is a point too frequently lost sight of. being told of the latest attempt to float a limited The presses in use are so primitive that imliability company. A very large amount of the mense quantities of olives are wasted. The most valuable foreign information with regard Italian Consul at Jerusalem reported that cheap to trade matters is never heard of or seen in silk goods mixed with cotton would find a this country, because, although foreigners care-ready sale in Palestine. From a report of the fully study our consular reports and trade French Chamber of Commerce in Mexico, we news, we do not read their papers. We have see that Belguim, Germany, and France do a therefore made a careful examination of all very large trade with that country in an inferior the foreign consular reports of the world kind of cloth, but England's share of the busiduring 1886, together with the principal com- ness is only 5 per cent.-Judging from a paramercial newspapers, for the purpose of pre- graph in the ensuing month of March which serving in a permanent form hints to British appeared in L'Economiszte Française, Patatraders which are likely to be of service to gonia will be the hunting ground of gold them during the present year. We deal with prospecters, when the present "boom these consular notes chronologically rather Queensland is at an end. Gold is to be found than under specific trades, because manu- in more or less quantities over a length of facturers will then be the better enabled to twenty-eight leagues in that country. Speculajudge how far the circumstances of any par- tive mining engineers would do well to turn ticular trade have changed. In January a valu- their attention to this very promising field. able report was published from the United There are, according to the United States ConsulStates Consul at Buenos Ayres. He strongly General at La Faz and Bolivia, deposits of recommended the establishment for the South alabaster and of many varieties of fine marble American market of sample houses, and the there, which could be worked with great advantsending out by manufacturers of a few pack- age. It is a far cry from Bolivia to Roumania, ages on their own account. He said that but the Austro-Hungarian Vice-Consul at Roman, the Argentine people were peculiar in their writing in April, about the then approaching ideas as to dress goods, boots and shoes, opening of the railway from Romnic to Velcea hats, caps, wearing apparel, and even agri-and Slatina, pointed out that it would tap cultural machinery, and he strongly urged a study of the local needs of the market as the first element of commercial success in South America. In the same month the Belgian Consul-General at Buenos Ayres stated that it will be difficult for a long time to come to produce very fine wool in the country, as the animals live in the open air in all seasons. The same gentleman remarks that the local bankers there make on an average the very

in

a district especially rich in forests growing oak and other valuable timbers, the whole of which is as yet unexplored. A French paper published in America recommended to its readers a new use for sawdust. Water is added up to a degree of plasticity, resinous sawdust is added in the proportion of one to three parts, and one part of washed kaolin. The mixture is ground and pressed by means of a press. The lumps thus obtained are dried

in the air, then placed in a stove, and lastly vitrified in ovens under white-hot temperature. These blocks can be planed, sawn, and polished like incombustible bricks, and they are said to make capital firing. The Austro-Hungarian Consul General at Alexandria congratulated his compatriots on the fact that they had ousted England and Germany in the supply of beer to Egypt. A light sparkling liquid is required, and to this the Arabs are taking very kindly. The Austrian "Steinfelder" brewery is rapidly getting the trade into its own hands. -Speaking of sawdust as fuel, the AustroHungarian Consul at Cardiff stated in June that in 1885 Newport exported its first briquettes, made of small coal welded together with tar or some other substance. From May to December 1885 a total of 21,179 tons of briquettes were exported. These blocks are also made in Belgium, and are sold in London at 14s. a ton. The Consul of the same nation at Amsterdam speaks of a new material called carbolineum avenarium, for the preservation of the wood of ships, bridges, floodgates, and sleepers. It is much cheaper than and quite as effective as the expensive tars, oils and other substances heretofore used. One kilogramme is sufficient for six square mètres. It dries in the open air within twenty-four hours, and in a close room within eight days. It will be seen that AustroHungarian reports figure largely in our list. Austria, in truth, is making very strenuous efforts to extend her trade; and when she seizes Salonica, or even before, a regular line of steamers is to run-according to a Belgian consul in that place-to India, with which country Austria has large business relations.-In September the Bulletin du Musée Commercial stated that a large trade is to be done with the Argentine Republic in empty bottles. About a score of small sailing vessels do nothing else but convey bottles, mostly in bulk, wrapped up in straw. Beer bottles sell the best. Bill's of lading should have the words "common bottles written on them.-In October the Belgian Vice-Consul at Trebizond, writing on the trade of Asia Minor, observed that the cloth supplied to that market by Belgium is generally sent via Marseilles and Trieste, a very expensive mode of transit. A direct line from London and Antwerp would probably lead to a very large trade. About five-eighths of the imports in drapery and novelties come from Belgium, the rest from Germany, France, and England. For some time candles have only been imported from Belgium-a result due to the perseverance of the Belgian candle-makers with their clients. Their example is worthy the attention of other manufacturers. Many Belgian makers ask for credit on a bank when orders are sent to them. This request cannot be complied with, as there are no banks in Asia Minor. All that manufacturers need do is to get hold of a reliable house in Trebizond.-The most noticeable feature in the November foreign reports comes from Japan, where "upright" pianos, made of well-seasoned wood and without the use of glue, are in great demand. The pegs must not rest on metal foundations: the great moisture during the summer would soon corrode them. Good pianinos from Hamburg and the United States, and "grands" from London, fetch very high prices those for pianinos being from £50 to £70, and for "grands" from £72 to 120. The foreign reports in December were full of interest. The United States Consul

The Department of Finance informs him that separate statistics of figures of the exports to the Congo cannot be given: they are included in the quantity of the exports to the West Coast of Africa. All exporters clear their goods, spirits, etc., for the "West Coast of Africa," a vague designation, which is probably done to hide the destination,-the Congo in most cases. It is said that on the Congo the Germans and Belgians spoil the business by selling at wretchedly low prices, after having imported on a ridiculously large scale for so small a consuming community. Eatables the natives do not want there from Europe, clothing hardly, fineries to only a small extent; but gin and rum they do want sorely, and these are provided for them often in the most miserable form of adulterated stuff. The English and French houses manufacture rum, it is said, from malt wine, using certain essences for the purpose, and dispose of it in that section.-We will conclude these hints to manufacturers with a description of what is going on in that greatest of all markets China- written December 1886 by a correspondent of a French journal. He says that "the Chinese merchant is, with very few exceptions, scrupulously honest. He trades simply upon his word, and when once a business transaction has been agreed to it will be executed, so far as he is concerned, with the strictest regard to the conditions stipulated for. It is indeed seldom that the Chinese trader exacts a signature to a bargain, or gives his. In the case of the largest orders he more than often contents himself with simply making an entry of the transaction upon a memorandum sheet. Should a European fail to carry out a bargain he has entered into, he is immediately put into quarantine' by all the Chinese merchants, which may last for as long as eighteen months. The merchant in this plight would find that he would absolutely not be able to buy a roll of silk nor to sell a piece of cotton. It has been found impossible amongst the European traders to retaliate in the same manner in the case of defaulting Chinese merchants; but there is really no occasion for it, as such instances are few and far between. At the time fixed for the delivery of goods the merchandise is examined, and definitely accepted if it is in accordance with the terms agreed upon, or rejected if the contrary is the case. The European houses usually have specially qualified inspectors for this purpose, who examine articles of such importance as tea or silk, and these officers are men of great reliability and experience. For articles of less value the advice and the assistance

·

of the 'compradore' is sought. The Chinese adapt himself to their ways and customs, he compradore' always speaks English, and will experience no difficulty, within a short before the establishment of the European period, in establishing a sound and profitable banks he was a person of considerable in- business. It is only when his business is thus fluence and importance. Every good business once fairly established that he can afford to house retains the services of a 'compradore,' leave it in the hands of a qualified agent. With who is really a kind of banker, receiving and regard to means of transport, an order given paying money for those who employ him. For by telegraph from Shanghai, say, to Marseilles, the important duties that he is called upon to can be executed within two months. The mode perform he sometimes receives an emolument of payment is cash prompt. Amongst Europeans as large as 4,000 taels. He deposits as credit is sometimes allowed, but it is quite the security to his clients a large sum in one of exception, and in such cases the length of the the banks, and as an additional safeguard a credit varies according to the customs of the friend or relation usually acts as surety for various places upon which bills are drawn. him in case of default. But, owing to the From Shanghai they are drawn upon London establishment of the European banks, the com- or Paris, generally for four months, at sight. mercial importance of the 'compradore' has Business premises can be obtained for about greatly diminished, and it is only the 'compra- 500 taels, and a house for 800 to 1,500 taels. dore' of a bank who retains his ancient powers. The cost of living at Shanghai is not great. He has the management of everything, and he All kinds of native produce are cheap, but a alone can secure native customers for his em- high price is charged for European goods." ployers. In a word, a good compradore' is Trade Marks. It has long been the practice indispensable to every house that wishes to of individuals and firms producing articles of trade with the Chinese. In trading with trade to impress thereon marks whereby they China it is necessary to bear in mind that there may be identified as the makers. The marks are are certain usages from which the natives will in one sense pledges of good faith, and once a not depart. For instance, in cottons and cloths man has acquired a reputation for turning out there are special measurements, which have articles of superior quality, purchasers know been established by long custom, which the what to expect when they see his mark. In Chinese prefer and will have, or they will not this way a mark becomes a valuable thing, and purchase. French manufacturers have failed a wise man will take care that whatever he to secure a large amount of business which they attaches it to shall be worthy of the reputation might have had, owing to their inattention to he has achieved. So long as the law afforded these special requirements of the Chinese and no protection in the matter it was found that, by endeavours to force their own taste upon as a mark became more valuable to its owner, it them. England, on the other hand, has paid was the more likely to be copied on inferior more attention to this matter, and she has in articles by unprincipled rivals. Prior to the consequence become master of the situation in year 1862 the law in this country was so uncottons. The merchant who proposes to estab- satisfactory on this point that the marks of the lish a business in China must go there himself more celebrated firms in various departments and personally make himself acquainted with of trade were pirated in the most audacious the local conditions which are essential to manner, both at home and abroad. The Merinsure success: that is the only way in which chandise Marks Act, passed in 1862, made it a he is likely to be successful. More than often misdemeanour to forge or counterfeit any trade he does not do this, but sends an agent to mark or falsely to use any such trade mark with represent him with limited powers, and when intent to defraud, whether applied to a cask, this is the case satisfactory results are seldom bottle, stopper, vessel, case, cover, wrapper, obtained. The businesses in China which have band, reel, ticket, label, or any other thing, in been successful have been founded there by or with which any commodity is sold or the merchants themselves, who have carefully intended to be sold. It was made an offence to studied on the spot the special requirements sell or expose, either for sale or for any purpose of the markets they desired to supply. To of trade or manufacture, articles with forged or attempt to establish a business by correspond- false trade marks under a penalty of a sum ence is futile: the hesitation and delay which equal to the value of such articles, and a sum necessarily have to take place in effecting im- besides not less than 10s. and not exceeding £5. portant transactions result in a serious loss of Additions to, or alterations and imitations of, time and money, and are fatal to the building any trade mark made with intent to defraud are up a successful business. The only way is for held to be forgeries, and are punishable as such. the merchant to go there himself. He should Persons found dealing in goods bearing false know English, and should spare no trouble or marks are bound to give information as to reasonable expense to secure competent assist- where they procured the articles on demand ants. If, for instance, he is going to open up for such information being made to them in business in the metal trades, he should be writing. To afford further protection and also accompanied by a qualified engineer, or if in to give facilities for avoiding the adoption of the silk trade, by a reliable and capable in-marks or symbols already appropriated an Act Spector, and it is very essential that these for the establishment of a Register of Trade Marks officers should also know English. The more was passed in 1875 and amended in 1876. Regissubordinate appointments in his establishment,tration has practically been made compulsory, such as accountants, copying-clerks, etc., can for no one can take steps to prevent infringeusually be filled up with little difficulty from ment of a trade mark unless such mark has amongst the Portuguese element of Macao. If been entered in the Register, which is under merchant desirous of founding a business in the superintendence of the Commissioner of China is prepared to be a little enterprising, and Patents. To mark on any piece of goods a false selects a good position for his house, and will indication of the quantity is a misdemeanour. take the trouble to acquaint himself with the punishable either by fine or imprisonment, commercial usages of the native Chinese and Another important provision is, that the vendor