branches had been formed, against six in the previous year. Organ of the Association, The Church Intelligencer. Sec., I. P. Fleming, D.C.L. Offices, 14, Buckingham Street, Strand.

Church Building Society, for the enlargement, building, and repairing of churches. Founded 1818. Offices, 7, Whitehall, S.W. See BISHOP OF LONDON'S FUND.

Church Clocks. There is no doubt that railways and the electric telegraph have done much to raise the standard of time-keeping; for the service of trains is regulated by Greenwich time, received daily by telegraph at the terminus, and thence transmitted to the various stations. Exact time being now required, church clocks, as the public standards, are expected, no matter how exposed their situation or how large their dials, to keep accurate time, and not to vary as many seconds as their predecessors varied minutes.-Dials. As the effectiveness of a good clock is often spoiled by the smallness of the dials or by unsuitable material being used for their construction, it is necessary to observe the following rule. Allow one foot diameter for every ten feet of elevation: thus, if the centre of dial is fifty feet from the ground, the dial should be five feet diameter. This is the minimum; but the most effective clocks have larger dials than this proportion would give. St. Paul's Cathedral, for example, has an elevation of 126 ft., diameter of dial 17 ft.; the great clock at Lucknow, by J. W. Benson (the largest in India), elevation 120 ft., diameter 13 ft.; Bow Church, Cheapside, elevation 70 ft., diameter 9 ft. The material should be copper, painted black, with gilt figures and hands or slate enamelled, black or polished. The plainer and simpler the dial the better it is for service; ornate dials are a mistake, and should be avoided. Of late years it has become the custom to illuminate the dials after dark, which almost doubles the usefulness of the clock, and it is well worth the small additional expense. A revival of the ancient custom of chiming the quarters has taken place of late years, and in cases where there is a peal of eight bells the beautiful "Cambridge quarters -so called after St. Mary's, Cambridge-can be duly chimed.-Hints to Clergymen, Committees, Town Councils, and others, in negotiating for a new clock. (1) As the purchaser is not usually in a position to judge of the details of clock-work, he must rely on the reputation of the maker, who, if he is an actual and bona-fide manufacturer, and not a mere clock seller, will be able to refer to public clocks erected by him in different parts of the country, so that independent inquiry can be made as to the efficiency of his instruments. (2) A so-called cheap clock of inferior quality, with iron wheels and pinions, will never keep good time, constantly fail, and will have ultimately to be replaced with better work. It is, therefore, truer economy, as well as more satisfactory, to order a good clock at first. Stipulation should, therefore, be made that the bed or frame of the clock be of horizontal construction, with bearings working in plummer blocks, screwed, not riveted, into their proper places, so that any part can be easily removed for cleaning or repair without disturbing the rest-an important advantage not possessed by the old style of frame. (3) No cast-iron wheels to be used, as they are liable to break or chip, subject to decay and rust, and will never work with the necessary accuracy. The whole of the wheels must be of

hard brass, or better still, of gun metal, and the pinions of steel, hardened and tempered, divided and cut by steam machinery, whereby perfect accuracy is obtained, which is impossible in hand-made work. (4) Compensated Pendulum. In the place of the old-style wood pendulum rod, one made of iron and zinc tubes should be provided, properly adjusted, so that the pendulum will be unaffected by changes of temperature, and cause the clock to keep an even rate in either extreme of heat or cold. The pendulum to beat 1 second, 1, 1, or 2, according to size of clock, and have a cylindri cal bob of not less than 2 cwt. (5) The best escapement is Graham's dead-beat, which is the simplest and least liable to get out of order, whilst it keeps a rate of great accuracy. A complicated gravity escapement will be a source of trouble, as proved in many instances, besides being much more expensive. (6) For the striking mechanism, stipulate that the improved back repeating work is used, which is safer in its lockings, more reliable, and in every way superior to the count-wheel or locking-plate (still used for cheapness' sake by some makers), which is apt to run past its lockings and strike the wrong hours. (7) That the striking is from the great wheel, by which a heavier blow is given and more sound obtained than was possible by the mechanism formerly used. (8) That the clock be warranted for one year, and its variations not to exceed five seconds per week.

Church Congress of 1886. This, the twentysixth annual meeting, was held on Oct. 5th at Wakefield, under the presidency of Dr. Boyd Carpenter, Lord Bishop of Ripon. The Church Congress was established in 1860, and was the outcome of the revival of the meeting of Convocation, which, being prorogued in 1717, had remained silent for 135 years. It is a great council of the Established Church, but differs from Convocation by its members being nonelective, as any-one can become a member who pays a subscription, and includes lay as well as clerical representatives. The Congress was opened with an address by the President. In the morning there was a sermon in the parish church by the bishop of York. The main topic of the President's address in the Congress Hall was the question of Church Reform; and this subject, in one form or another, occupied by far the most attentive consideration, the Hon. and Rev. Canon Fremantle and Canon Lefroy taking part in the discussion. Other subjects which occupied attention were :The Reform of Convocation, Church Work, the Subject of the Church in relation to the Rural Populations, the Increase of the Episcopate, Wakefield Bishopric Fund, Foreign Missions, the Position of the Laity in Church Councils, the Uses of Music, Homes for the Working Classes, and Parish Churches' Bill. The bishop of an address on The Church in relation to the Urban Populations." On the whole this Congress, in its scope and interest, was quite as important as any held within recent years. The meeting this year (1887) will be held at Wolverhampton (the diocese of Lichfield).

Rochester delivered

Church Defence Institution. See CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

Church House. The proposal to raise a fund for building a Church House for the manifold requirements of the Church as an organic body, but more especially for Convo

under Government inspection, affording accommodation for 2,351,235 children, being more than half the school accommodation of the country. These schools have been built at a cost to the Church of not less than £12,500,000. There are also, in connection with the Church of England, thirty training colleges for school teachers, erected at a cost of £195,000, towards the maintenance of which the Mother Church annually contributes £10,000.-Parties. The three great party divisions in the Church of England may be said to be representative of the various types of mind which will be found in any large society. The "High Church" or historical party attach great importance to the historical position of the Church in the succession of her clergy. They uphold her authority in matters of doctrine and discipline; and value her rites and sacraments, not only as devotional aids and convenient symbols, but as peculiar and special means of grace, of which she is the only authorised administratrix. The "Low Church' or Puritan party think comparatively little of these things, but set the greatest value on conversion, justification by faith, without the works of the law. They consider themselves rather as members of the Church invisible than of the Church visible, and disregard niceties of ceremonial, as distracting the soul from true worship, and as unduly exalting the priestly office, or tending to false (chiefly Popish) doctrine. The "Broad Church," on the other hand, pay but little attention to either ceremony or dogma. They are for extending the liberty of belief within the Church to its utmost possible limits as some assert even, to the borders of Unitarianism. They attach great importance to the social Christian virtues, to living a wholesome and cleanly life, adopting the precepts rather than the theology of religion. The three have been said to show forth respectively the body, the spirit, and the soul, of the Church. In Church legislation nothing of importance was enacted in 1886. Two measures of note were introduced and lost-viz., the Church Patronage Bill, and the Parish Churches Bill. Both owed their origin to the general agitation for Church reform. A society, "The Church Defence Institution," has been formed to counteract the agitation for disestablishment by means of lectures, publications, etc. Its income for the year ending 1886 was about £12,000. Offices, 9, Bridge Street, Westminster. (For list of Cathedrals, Archbishops, Bishops, and the dates of their appointment, see CATHEDRALS; and consult the "Official Year-book of the Church of England" 1887.)

Church of Ireland. See IRELAND. Church of Scotland, The. The Scots, jealous of their liberty and rights, recognised the same orders as other Christians, but never acknowledged any supremacy of jurisdiction in the Episcopal order. In the earliest times all abbots were subordinate to the successor of St. Columba, the Abbot of Iona being Primate; but the Mediæval Church down to the fifteenth century had no Metropolitan; the chief government of the Church under the Pope devolving upon a Synod in which bishops, abbots, priests, and other ecclesiastics sat. In 1472, however, Sixtus IV. raised St. Andrews to an Archiepiscopal and Metropolitan see; and in 1492, Innocent VIII., Glasgow was raised to a similar rank. When the Reformation began two parties arose, the bishops and the State being opposed to all change, and a party of

reformers, known as the Congregation, demanding great changes. The latter party triumphed, and in 1560 the jurisdiction of the Pope was abolished by a Parliament sitting at Edinburgh. A General Assembly then governed the Reformed Church. Doubts arose as to the desirability of abolishing the bishops, and men of tried Protestantism were elevated to the sees. A contest between Episcopacy and Presbyterianism succeeded, ending in the triumph of the latter. At the Restoration bishops were reappointed, but as they sided with James II., upon the accession of William and Mary, the prelates were abolished. Presbyterianism was then re-established, and the Westminster Confession of Faith adopted as the national standard of belief. The right of patrons to nominate to vacancies had been taken away, but was given back in 1712, and the exercise of that right led to much discussion, which resulted in 1843 by the dissentients leaving the General Assembly and forming the Free Church of Scotland.

Church Rates. Originally, like tithes (q.v.), a charge upon the land of a parish for the maintenance of the church fabric. In later years levied as a rate, and paid by occupiers. Nonconformists having objected to them, they were abolished in 1868. The churches and services are now provided and maintained solely by Churchmen and Church endowments, whereby all apparent injustice to Nonconformists is entirely removed, and the rights of Nonconformist parishioners in the church fabric are not impaired.

Church, Richard William, D.C.L., Dean of St. Paul's, was b. at Lisbon. Educated at Oxford, where he graduated with much distinction (1836). Fellow of Oriel (1838); rector of Whatley, Somerset (1853); appointed by Mr. Gladstone to the Deanery of St. Paul's (1871). Dean Church has contributed to Essays and Reviews, the Saturday Review, the Guardian, and other contemporary papers, and has also written important works on Anselm and Dante (1850-79), besides sermons, amongst which are his well-known Advent Sermons (1885), etc. Dean Church is one of the most prominent leaders of the High Church Party. He is at present (Jan. 1887) travelling abroad for the restoration of his health, which had become much impaired.

Cinque Ports, The, a group of seven ports (originally five, whence the name) situated on the south coast of England (in Sussex and Kent). Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich were the original ports; Winchelsea and Rye being added afterwards. They had their own officers ("barons") and wardens, possessed criminal and civil jurisdiction within their own districts, were exempted from taxes and tolls, were empowered to make their own bye-laws, and to regulate certain fisheries, etc., being required in return to annually furnish the Crown with fifty-seven ships for fifteen days. Up to the reign of Henry VII., they were thus an important factor in the navy, and their ships distinguished themselves against the Spanish Armada (1588). Their charters were surrendered to the Crown in 1685, and their privileges abolished by the Reform Act of 1832 and the Corporations Act of 1835. The Lord Wardenship is now only an honorary dignity. Its holders have no special jurisdiction. Earl Granville was nominated in 1865. Circumstantial Evidence. A fact is said

to be proved by means of circumstantial evidence when, instead of being attested directly by one's own senses, or by those of other persons, it is inferred from some other fact or facts so directly attested. Thus, if A swears that he saw B shoot C, this is direct evidence of B's guilt. But if A swears that, passing by a certain house, he heard three shots in rapid succession, and then saw B rush out revolver in hand, and upon going in found C lying dead in a pool of blood, this is circumstantial evidence that B murdered C. It is clear from such an example as this that the value of circumstantial evidence varies indefinitely. A's evidence in the one case is just as trustworthy as in the other. In both cases an inference has to be drawn from A's statement, for A's senses may possibly have been deceived in either case; and in both we tacitly and unconsciously make the inference from his statement that he saw an occurrence to the conclusion that the occurrence took place. But the inference made in acting upon circumstantial evidence, although consisting of more steps, may be safer than the inference made in acting upon direct evidence. Suppose that the witness who deposed to having seen B shoot C is a man apt to mistake one face for another, or was drunk, or malicious, or some distance off, or in a bad light for seeing objects precisely. Suppose that the witness who deposed to having heard and seen the circumstances whence it is inferred that B shot C is a man of exact perceptions, sober, honest, and in a position favourable to seeing and hearing correctly. Then the circumstances in the one case are far better attested than in the other; and a strong inference from well-attested facts may be a safer assurance than an untrustworthy statement. Thus circumstantial evidence may be stronger than common direct evidence, and may be almost as strong as the strongest direct evidence. But it rarely is quite satisfactory, for it is only in abstract science that we can find quite trustworthy inferences. The inferences which have to be made in business and the administration of justice seldom afford more than a strong probability. There being still a doubt, the prisoner is bound to have the benefit of it.

Cirencester Royal Agricultural College. See AGRICULTURAL COlleges.

City and Southwark Subway.

GINEERING.

See EN

City and Suburban. See SPORT. City Charities. The charities of the City of London, excluding Christ's Hospital and the medical hospitals connected with the Corporation may be divided into two sections: firstly, the parochial charities; and secondly, the charities under the trust of the guilds or companies of the City of London. All the money left to the City parishes must at present be spent within those parishes; but as houses were pulled down to make room for houses and warehouses, in many cases none of the class of persons remain for whose benefit the charities were intended. The London School Board first commenced an inquiry upon the subject; and in 1878 the Government appointed a Royal Commission, which was presided over by the Duke of Northumberland, to inquire into the City Parochial Charities. These charities comprise 1,330 trusts in 106 parishes; and the income at the present time is estimated at about £110,000 or £115,000 a year. In 1879 the

estimate by the London School Board was 104,000. The estimate of the Royal Commission for the year 1876 was £101,000; in 1870 the income was £85,000; and in 1865, £67,000. The objects for which the trust income was left include payments to clergymen for preaching anniversary sermons in commemoration of the founders, masses for the repose of the soul, commemorations of thankfulness for the nation being saved from the Spanish Armada, and for the failure of the Gunpowder Plot, and gratitude for the accession of Queen Elizabeth. Funds have been left for such obsolete purposes as the purchase of faggots for the burning of heretics. About £19,000 a year has been left for educational purposes, and considerably over £2,000 a year for apprenticeships. But the most marvellous revelation of the School Board inquiry was that some of the trustees of these charities actually paid out of the income of the trusts no less than £10,000 a year towards the poor rates of the City. The outcome of the Royal Commission was the City of London Parochial Charities Act, 1883, under which Sir Francis Sandford and other Commissioners were appointed to make an investigation of the property and effects belonging to the several trusts, and to provide a scheme for the future application and management of the charity property and endowments. For the purpose of drawing up this scheme the Commissioners were allowed till the end of the year 1887, with the provision that their powers, if necessary, should be extended for two years longer. When the scheme is prepared a new body will be appointed to administer. After making provision for vested interests, the Commissioners are to secure the property scheduled as ecclesiastical property to be used for the maintenance of the fabric and services of the Church, or such other ecclesiastical purposes as may seem beneficial to the inhabitants of the parishes. The other charities, a great proportion of which have become obsolete, are to be amalgamated, and the funds to be used for the promotion of the education of the poorer inhabitants of the parishes, by means of exhibitions, or technical instruction, or by secondary education, art education, evening lectures, etc.; the establishment and maintenance of libraries for the poorer inhabitants; the preserving, providing and maintaining of open spaces and recreation grounds or drill grounds; the promotion of provident institutions, and working men's and women's institutes; and generally for the physical, moral, and social improvements of the poorer inhabitants of the City. The trusts possessed by the existing guilds or City companies number 1028. The total income amounts to about 185,829, which is nearly double the amount scheduled in the return of the House of Commons made in 1868, on the motion of Lord Robert Montagu-viz., £99,027. The appropriation is as follows:For sermons, lectures, etc., £3,083 4s. 10d.; for church expenses, £645 11s.; for candles (used during lectures, etc.), £9; for church impropriations,

102 11S. 5d.; for coals, £311 55. 10d.; for clothing, 1870 IS. 10d.; for medical aid, a large share of which is in connection with convalescent hospitals (the whole of the Debtor Prison charities having been, under a Chancery decree,appropriated to that object),£4089 os.7d.; for food (including bread, cheese, fish, "potations," etc.), £524 13s. 6d. ; for education