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besieged the temple, where the desperate factions still maintained an energetic resistance. Títus was very anxious to save the sacred edifice, but one of his soldiers threw a lighted brand into one of the windows, and the whole building was soon in flames. A fearful massacre followed; the Romans refused all quarter, and many thousands perished by the fire, the sword, or by throwing themselves headlong from the battlements. This scene of butchery was continued for several days,. until Jerúsalem was left utterly desolate. The number of prisoners reserved for a fate worse than death amounted to ninety-seven thousand, eleven thousand of whom were starved to death by the neglect or cupidity of their keepers. According to Joséphus, there perished at Jerúsalem during the siege, by famine, pestilence, and the sword, more than a million of Jews and proselytes; but this statement appears to be exaggerated.

When the soldiers had ended their destructive work of burning and slaughter, Títus ordered that the entire city should be razed to the ground, with the exception of a portion of the western wall, and three towers, which he left as memorials of his conquest. So punctually were his orders executed, that, except these few buildings, nothing was left save shapeless ruins, which would indicate that the place had ever been inhabited. The victory of Títus was celebrated at Rome by a splendid triumph; a triumphal arch, which still exists, was raised to commemorate the event; and a medal struck, in which the captured land of Judea was significantly represented as a disconsolate female sitting beneath a palm-tree, while a soldier, standing by, laughed at her misery and mocked at her calamity.

CHAPTER XIII.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY.

SECTION I.-Geographical Outline.

ITALY, in its earliest signification, was the name given to the small ongue of land between the Syllet'ic and the Nepetic gulfs, that is, the southern portion of Brut'tium; but it was gradually extended to include more northern provinces, until, in the reign of the Emperor Augustus, it was applied to the great peninsula included between the Alps, the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian and the Mediterranean seas. It was also called Hespéria, from its western situation; Satur'nia, from the fable of Saturn's flight thither; Aus'onia and Enótria, from some of the most ancient tribes of inhabitants.

The most convenient division of the peninsula is into three portions: Cisalpine Gaul in the north, Italy Proper in the centre, and Magna Græcia in the south.

Subalpine Italy received the name of Gaul from the Gallic hordes that settled in the northern and western districts; it was called for distinction Cisalpine, or Citérior, because it lay on the side of the Alps next to Rome, and Togáta, because in a late age, its inhabitants began to use the tóga, or national dress of the Romans. From the Alps, this province at first extended to the city of An'cona, in the province of Picénum; but, in the later ages of the Roman republic, the river Rúbicon (Rugone), between Ravenna and Arim'inum, was considered the limit of its frontiers.

The principal Subalpine tribes were the Vedian'tii, inhabiting the small tract lying on the east bank of the Várus (Var), and extending from the territory of Níca (Nice), to the Maritime Alps, or that branch of the mountain-chain which joins the Western Mediterranean: the Vagæn'ni, north of the Maritime Alps near the source of the river Pádus (Po); and the Tauríni, at the other side of the Pádus, on which stood their capital, Taurásia, subsequently called Augus'ta Taurinórum (Turin).

North of the Taur'ini, and among the mountains, was the kingdom of Cottíus, who gave his name to the Cottian Alps. Thence to the Greek Alps, which extended to Mons Jóvis (Great St. Bernard), there were several warlike Gallic tribes, but none of any particular note in history.

Ligúria lay south of the river Pádus, extending to the Mediterranean sea, between the rivers Mácra and Várus. Its chief cities on the seacoast were Nicæ'a (Nice or Nizza), erected by the Massilians to protect their frontier against the Ligurian mountaineers: Pórtus Herculis

Mona'ci (Monaco), Al'bium Intemélium (Vintimiglia), Al'bium Ingan'num (Albengia), Sab'ata (Savona), Gen'ua or Jan'ua (Genoa), Por'tus Delphini (Porto Fino), and Por'tus Lúna (Golfo delle Spezie). Of these Gen'ua was the most important, being the great emporium of Ligurian commerce. The principal towns in the interior were Polléntia (Pollenza), As'ta (Asti), and Indus'tria (Tortona). This last city was called Bodencomágum by the earlier Ligurians, because it stood on the Fo, which they named Boden'cus, a word in their language signifying "bottomless." Next to Liguria lay the district named Gallia Cispadána, or Gaul south of the Po; it was chiefly inhabited by the Boii, the Lingónes, and the Senónes. The principal towns of the Boii were Placéntia, Par'ma, Mútina (Modena), and Bonónia (Bologna). The Lingónes possessed Raven'na, Faven'tia (Faenza), Solóna (Citta di Sole), and Cæ'sena; and to the Senónes belonged Ariminʼum (Rimini), Pisaúrum (Pesaro), Séna Gallica (Sinigaglia), and An'cona.

Gallia Transpadana, or north of the Pádus, had the great Alpine chain on the north and west, between which and the Po it extended to the river Formio (Il Risano), which separated it from Istria. It was inhabited by the Oróbii, the In'subres, the Læ'vi, the Cenoman'ni, the Euganei, and the Ven'eti. The principal cities in the territory of the Oróbii were Con'rum (Conro), Ber'gamum (Bergamo), and Fórum Licin'ii (Berlasina); the In'subres possessed Mediolánum (Milan), Laus Pompeii (Lodi), and Fórum Intuntórum (Crema): to the Cenoman'ni belonged Brix'ia (Brescia), Cremóna, Man'tua, and Ver'ona: the Eugánei, owned Sábium, Vobern'a, Ed'rum, and Van'nia, cities long since demolished and the Ven'eti were masters of Patávium (Padua), Vicen'tia (Vicenza), Ates'te (Este), Fórum Alliéni (Ferrara), Tar'visum (Treviso), Aquileía (Aquilea), Fórum Júlii (Friuli), and Tergéste (Trieste). In later ages, a horde, called the Carni, wrested from the Ven'eti the cities and country between the rivers For'mio and Talaven'tum (Piave).

Central or Proper Italy extended along the Adriatic coast from the city of An'cona to the river Fren'to (Fortore), and on the Mediterranean side was limited by the rivers Mácra and Sil'arus (Sele). It comprehended Etrúria, Umbria, Sabin'ium, Látium, Picénum, with the countries of the Vestíni, Marrucíni, Pelig'ni, Mar'si, Frent'ani, Samnites, Hirpíni, Campáni, and Picentíni.

Etrúria was inhabited by two distinct races, that seem to have very slowly amalgamated, the Tyrrhéni and the Hetrus'ci. It was bounded on the east by the river Tiber, on the west by the Mácra, on the north by the chain of the Apennines, and on the south by that portion of the Mediterranean commonly called the Tuscan sea. It was divided into a dodecarchy, or government of twelve tribes and cities. These ruling cities in the most flourishing period of Etrurian history were, Volsin'ii (Bolsena), Clusium (Chiusi), Perúsia (Perugia), Cortóna, Aret'ium (Arezzo), Falérii (Civita Castellana), Volater'ræ (Volterra), Vetulónium (Grosseto), Rusel'læ (Cerveteri), and the cities of Veíi, Tarquiníi, and Cæ're, which at present lie in ruins. There were many other places of importance in Etruria: on the seacoast were Lúna (L'Erice), Písæ (Pisa), Por'tus Her'culis Libur'ni (Livorno or Leghorn), Papulónia now in ruins, Tal'amon (Telamone), Centumcel'le (Civita Vecchia), and

Al'sium (Palo). There were besides, in the interior, Nep'ete (Nepe), Sútrium (Sutri), Fánum Voltum'næ (Viterbo), Hortánum (Orti), Herbánum (Orvieto), Senæ Julia (Saona), Floren'tia (Fiorenza, Firenze, or Florence), Pistória (Pistoia), and Lúca (Lucca).

Umbria was bounded on the south by the river Nar (Nera), on the north by the Adriatic sea, on the east by the Esis (Fiumicino), and on the west partly by the Tiber, and partly by the Bedesis (Il Roneo), which falls into the Adriatic near Ravenna. But the maritime part of Umbria having been early conquered by the Senonian Gauls, the cities it contains have been already mentioned in the account of Gallia Cispadána. The Umbrian cities on the Adriatic side of the Apennines were Sarsína, Urbínum (Urbino), Metauren'se (Castel Durante), Sentínum (Sentimo), and Cam'ers (Camerino). On the other side of these mountains were Igúvium (Ugubio), Mevánia (Bagagna), Spolet'ium (Spoleti), Tifer'num (Citta di Castella), Nucéria (Nocera), Assis'ium (Assisi), Hispellum (Ispello), Fulgin'ium (Foligno), Interam'nium (Terni), Narnia (Ñarni), and Ocric'ulum (Ocricoli).

The territory of the Sabines lay between the Nar, which divided it from Umbria, and the A'nio (Teverone), by which it was separated from Latium. It contained the city of Cúres, whose inhabitants, migrating to Rome, are said to have given its citizens the name of Quirites; Reáte (Rieti), Nur'șia (Norcia), E'retum (Monte Rotondo), and Amiter'num (Lamentaria).

Látium was at first restricted within very narrow limits, being bounded by the Tiber, the A'nio (Teverone), and the Circæan promontory (Monte Cercilli); but after the subjugation of the 'qui, Herníci, Vol'sci, and Ausónes, it was extended to the Líris (Garigliano); and hence arises the distinction between Old and New Látium. The chief cities of Old Látium were ROME, Tíbur (Tivoli), Prænes'te (Palestrina), Tus'culum (Frascati), Aric'ia, Lanúvium (Citta Lavina), Al'ba Lon'ga (Albano), Lauren'tum (Paterno), and Os'tia. There were, besides, four Latin towns, of which the ruins can now scarcely be traced, Gábii, Antem'næ, Collátia, and Ar'dea. The chief cities of the Equi were Car'sula (Arsuli), Valéria (Vico Varo), Subláqueum (Subiaco), and Al'gidum, now in ruins. To the Herníci belonged Anag'nia (Anagni), Alátrium (Alatri), Ver'ulæ (Veroli), and Ferentínum (Ferentino). In the country of the Volsci were An'tium, Cir'cæ, and Sues'sa Pométia, all three long since ruined; Anx'ur (Terracina), Vel'itræ (Veletri), Priver'num (Piperno), Aquínum (Aquino), Casínum (Monte Cassino), Arpinum (Arpino), Fregel'læ (Ponte Corvo), and Interam'na (L'Isola). The Ausónes possessed Caréto (Gaeta), Fun'di (Fondi), and For'miæ (Mola).

Picénum extended from the Adriatic to the Apennines, between the E'sis (Esino) and the Aternus (Pescara). The chief cities of the Picen'tes were Ancóna, As'culum (Ascoli), Interam'nium (Teramo), and A'tria (Atri). Several other nations besides the Picen'tes were included within the boundaries of Picénum. Of these, the Vestíni possessed An'gulus (Civita di Sancto Angelo) and Avel'la; the Marrucíni owned but one city, Téate (Chiete); the Peligni possessed Corfin'ium, now in ruins, and Sul'mo (Sulmona); the Mar'si, in the interior of the country, close to the Apennines, had only one important town,

Marrúbium (Morrea). On the southern seacoast were the Frentáni, whose chief cities were Ortóna, Anax'onum (Lanzano), and Histónium (Guasto d'Amone): the Samnites possessed the country between the territory of the Frentáni and the Apennines; their chief cities were Bovíanum (Boiano), Eser'nia (Isernia), Sepínum (Sepina), Allifæ (Alifi), and Tel'esia (Telesi). Finally, the Hirpíni held the south western side of the Apennines, and possessed Beneven'tum (Benevento), Equotúticum (Ariano), and Comp'sa (Conza).

Campánia, the most pleasant and fruitful division of Italy, extended between the territories of the Samnites and Herpíni and the Mediterranean from the river Liris to the promontry of Minerva. On its coast were Liter'num (Torre di Patria), Baía (Baia), Misénum (Monte Miseno), Parthen'ope or Neap'olis (Naples), and Sorren'tium (Sorrento), together with the cities of Herculaneum and Pom'peii, overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In the interior of the country were Cápua, Sues'sa Aurun'ca (Sessa), Venáfrum (Venafro), Casilínum (Nova Capua), Teánum Sidicínum (Tiano), Calátia (Cajazzo), Cáles (Calvi), Atel'la (Aversa), Acer'ræ (Acerra), Nóla and Nucéria (Nocera). Between the promontory of Minerva and the river Sil'arus (Sele) was a small district inhabited by a Picentine colony, whose chief city was Salernum (Salerno).

Magna Græcia, so called from the number of Greek colonies that settled in it, comprised Apúlia, Lucánia, and the territory of the Brut'tii. Apúlia (La Puglia) extended from the river Fren'to (Fortore) to the Japygian promontory (Capo di Leuca), at the southeastern extremity of Italy. It was divided into three portions: Daúnia, lying between the Fren'to and the Aúfidus (Ofanto); Peucétia, stretching from the Aúfidus to the isthmus between Brundúsium and Taren'tum; and Japy'gia, or Calábria, comprising the southeastern peninsula of Italy, or the heel of the boot to which Italy has been fancifully compared.

In the first two divisions were Teánum Ap'ulum (Civitate Tragonara), Sípuntum (Siponto) Lúceria (Lucera), Ar'pi (Foggia) As'culum Ap'ulum (Asicli), Venúsia (Venosa), Acheron'tia (Acirenza), Canúsium (Canosa), Can'næ (Canna), Salápia (Salpe), Bárium (Bari), and Egnátia (Terra d'Anazzo). The chief cities of Calábria were Brundúsium (Brindisi), Hydrúntum (Otranto), Callip'olis (Gallipoli), Ner'itum (Nardo), and Alétium (Lezze).

Lucánia lay between the Sílarus and the Laüs (Laino). It was divided from Peucétia by the Bran'danus (Brandano), and from Calábria by the upper part of the Tarentine gulf. On the Mediterranean, or Tyrrhenian sea, stood Pæs'tum or Posidónia (Pesto), Vélia (Pisciotta), and Buxen'tum (Policastro). On the Tarentine gulf were Metapon'tum (Tere di Mare) and Heracléa, called also Syb'aris and Thurii (Policore). The inland cities were Poten'tia (Potenza), and Grumen'tum (Clarimonte).

Greek colonies occupied the southwestern peninsula of Italy. Their chief cities on the western coast were Ceril'li (Cirella), Clamp'etia (Amantea), Tom'sa (Torre Loppa), Lamétia (Sant Euphemia), Scyllæ'um (Sciglia), and Rhégium (Reggio). On the eastern coast stood Lócri Epizephy'rii (Jeraces), Caulónia (Castel Veteri), Scylacéum (Squillaci), Cróto (Crontone), Petil'ia (Belicastro), and Rusciánum (Rossana).

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