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was the more likely to be affected by any disease of the body. A number of years before the occurrences above related, he had been subject to a violent vertigo, which had been cured by means of leeches; it was his custom to lose blood, twice a year, but previously to the present attack, this evacuation had been neglected. Supposing, therefore, that the mental disorder might arise from an irregularity in the circulation of the blood, he again resorted to the application of leeches.

When the leeches were applied, no person was with him besides the surgeon; but during the operation his chamber was crowded with human phantasms of all descriptions. In the course of a few hours, however, they moved around the chamber more slowly; their color began to fade, until growing more and more obscure, they at last dissolved into air, and he ceased to be troubled with them afterwards.

There is an instance, very similar to that of Nicolai, in the sixth volume of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal; particulars, however, it is unnecessary minutely to repeat.

A shopkeeper of Edinburgh was haunted with apparitions, appearing not only at night, but in the daytime; so much so that, at one time, he was unable to tell which were his real customers, and which were phantoms of the imagination.

The visionary beings, that appeared to him to enter and leave his shop, were as distinctly marked, were apparently as full of life and intelligence, as the persons, who were really present.

The complaint in this instance was cured by medical prescriptions, in particular, as in the case of the Berlin bookseller, by letting of blood by means of leeches.

APPARITOR. A term among the Romans, to comprehend all attendants of judges and magistrates appointed to receive and execute their orders. Apparitor, with us, is a messenger, that serves the process of a spiritual court, or a beadle in an university, who carries the mace.

APPAUME. In heraldry this denotes one hand extended with the full palm appearing, and the thumb and finger appearing at full length.

APPEAL. In the judicial language of England, besides the common meaning in other countries, had, till lately, another, also, denoting an accusation by one private subject against another, for some heinous crime, demanding punishment on account of the particular injury suffered, rather than for the offence against the public. This kind of appeal took place when the supposed criminal had been acquitted on an indictment, but not if he had been sentenced and punished for a less crime than that of which he was accused; for instance, of manslaughter instead of murder. If he was pardoned, this did not protect him from this private accusation, and, if found guilty on these charges, he was obliged to suffer the punishment established by law, and the king could not pardon him. The right of private accusation continued for a year. If, therefore, the judge, the public or the relatives were not satisfied with the sentence of the acquittal passed by the

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jury, such an appeal might be made, and the person acquitted detained in prison till the end of the year, unless bail was given for his appearance to answer to the appeal. The jury on the appeal was usually different from that on the indictment, and examples are not wanting where a man has been brought in guilty by a second jury, on the same grounds upon which he was acquitted by the first. In seventeen hundred eight, John Young was murdered, and suspicion fastened upon Ephraim Slaughterford, his friend, with whom he had last been seen. He was acquitted at the assizes, but the public were so convinced of his guilt, that a subscription was opened to pay the expenses of a private accusation. Slaughterford was found guilty by a second trial and was executed. A similar occurrence happened in eighteen hundred eighteen. A young lady, Mary Ashford, was found murdered under circumstances which fixed the strongest suspicions upon one Abraham Thornton. He had waited upon her home from a ball, and had been with her, as he himself had confessed, a short time before the discovery of the body, not far from the pit full of water, in which it lay. Notwithstanding this he was acquitted, and the brother of the deceased now prosecuted him by an appeal of murder. Upon this, Thornton made use of a right, the existence of which had been almost forgotten. He summoned the accuser to a wager of battle, that is, a trial by combat, instead of submitting to a trial by jury. The validity of this right could not be questioned, and the advocate of the accuser received a severe reproof from the court, because he suffered himself to call it unreasonable and barbarous. The accuser, a weak young man, twenty years old, did not venture to engage in contest, with clubs, with the athletic Thornton. He was obliged therefore to withdraw his accusation, and the suspected murderer was once more set at liberty. The public feeling, however, was so strong against him, that he emigrated to this country, America, where he soon after died. This event occasioned the abolition, not only of the wager of battle, but also of the right of appeal, as experienced lawyers were of opinion that the accused could not be deprived of the choice between a second trial by jury and a wager of battle. This was done in the year eighteen hundred nineteen by an act of parliament. Some might have thought that this abolition occasioned an essential defect in the English laws, but it was merely applying to such cases a just and proper principle of criminal law, which is now generally adopted both in England and America, that no person shall be twice tried for the same offence -a principle that gives great security against oppressive and successive prosecutions.

APPELLATION. The name by which any thing is known or distinguished when spoken of. Nothing can be more foreign to the original meaning of many words and proper names than their present or vulgar appellations; frequently owing to the history of those things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the language in which they were expressed. Who, for example, would dream that the legal proclamation called "O yes," was a proclamation commanding the talkers to become hearers, being the French word Oyez, listen, retained in our courts ever since the law pleadings were held in

ly bestowed on the sheriff's officers, is, according to Judge Blackstone, only the corruption of bound bailiffe, every sheriff's officer being obliged to enter into bonds and to give security for his good behavior, previous to his appointment.

French? Or would any person suppose that the headland or the French coast near Calais, called by our seamen Blackness, would be so titled from its French name of Blanc Nez, or the White Head-land? King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought A cordwainer seems to have no relation to the to Hardes in Kent, where they are still remaining, occupation it is meant to express, which is that of the flatterers of that reign highly magnified this ac- a shoemaker. But cordonier, originally spelt cordaution, which, Porto Bello like, became a popular sub-nier, is the French word for that trade; the best ject for signs; and the port or harbor of Boulogne, leather used for shoes coming originally from Corcalled Boulogne Mouth, was accordingly set up at a dova in Spain. noted inn in Holborn. The name of the inn long outliving the sign and fame of the conquest, an ignorant painter, employed by a no less ignorant landlord to paint a new one, represented it by a bull and a large gaping human mouth; answering to the vulgar pronunciation of bull and mouth. The same piece of history gave name to the bull and gate, originally meant for Boulogne gate, and represented by an embattled gate or entrance into a fortified

town.

The barber's pole has been the subject of many conjectures; some conceiving it to have originated from the word poll or head, with several other conceits as far fetched and as unmeaning; but the true intention of that party-colored staff was to show that the master of the shop practised surgery, and could breathe a vein as well as mow a beard. The white band which encompasses the staff was meant to represent the fillet thus elegantly twined about it.

Nor were the chequers, at this time a common sign of a public house, less expressive, being the representation of a kind of draught-board called tables, and showing that there that game might be played. From their color, which was red, and the similarity to a lattice, it was corruptly called the redlattice, which word is frequently used by ancient writers to signify an ale house.

The Spectator has explained the sign of the bellsavage inn plausibly enough, in supposing it to have been originally the figure of a beautiful female found in the woods, called in French la belle sauvage. But another reason has since been assigned for that appellation, namely, that the inn was once the proper ty of Lady Arabella Savage, and familiarly called Bell Savage's Inn, probably represented, as at present, by a bell and a savage or wild man, which was a rebus of her name.

The three blue balls prefixed to the doors and windows of pawnbrokers' shops, by the vulgar humorously enough said to indicate that it is two to one that the things pledged are never redeemed, were in reality the arms of a set of merchants from Lombardy, who were the first that publicly lent money on pledges. They dwelt together in a street, from them named Lombard Street, in London, and also gave their naine to another at Paris. The appellation of Lombard was formerly all over Europe considered, as synonymous with that of usurer.

APPETITE. In general, signifies the natural instinctive desire, by which the animal is led to pursue the gratifications of sense. In the present instance, however, we shall confine its meaning to the craving for food. In this respect, the appetite of man may be divided into three different species, though that evinced by inferior animals is naturally simple, because it is not impaired by art. Thus, if children were never enticed by weak parents, and ignorant nurses, to eat more than their own inclination directs them, or to partake of highly-flavored artificial dishes, which stimulate the palate, and preternaturally distend the stomach, there is every reason to believe, that the following classification would be unnecessary;

1. The natural appetite, which is contented as well with the most simple as the most compound and delicious dishes; such is that of country people employed in hard manual labor; of children who have not been mismanaged in the nursery; and of every rational person who is convinced of the advantages resulting to both mind and body, from a simple and frugal diet.

2. The artificial appetite of the epicure, the hypochondriac, and the tipler; all may be ranked under the same class. It would be needless to add, in this place, any other remark, than that such an inclination for sensual enjoyment remains only so long as the operation of these exquisite stimulants continues. When the papillary nerves of the palate can be no longer influenced by such excitement, the sensualist loses his appetite, and is punished with all the concomitant symptoms of indigestion.

3. The habitual appetite, though partly acquired, is not liable to those serious objections which apply to the latter species; nor is it attended with any other disadvantages than those arising from long fasting, or an undue allowance of food on particular occasions. Thus, after fatiguing exercise, when the fibres of the digestive organs are already weakened, and the circulation of the blood to those parts is unusually increased, the nourishment then received can be digested only with great difficulty, and to the detriment of the body.

An insatiable appetite may arise from too great a distension of the stomach in early infancy; from an over-abundant secretion of the gastric or digestive At the institution of yeoman guards, they used to liquor; from drinking large quantities of stimulating wait at table on all great solemnities, and were acid beverage, such as cider, perry, butter-milk, &c. ranged near the buffets. This procured them the but especially from a bad habit of fast eating, withname of buffetiers, not very unlike in sound to the out properly masticating hard substances. Hence jocular appellation of beef-eaters, now given them; the first maxim in diet should be, to eat slowly, in though probably it was rather the voluntary misno-order to prevent a sudden distension of the digestive mer of some wit, than an accidental corruption aris- organs, and to allow sufficient time for the food to ing from ignorance of the French language. be duly prepared, and gradually mixed with the gastric juice.

The opprobrious title of bum bay liffe, so constant

APPIAN WAY. An ancient highway from Rome through Capua to Brundusium, between 330 and 350 miles long. Appius Claudius, and Cæcus the Censor, A. U. C. 441, carried it from the Porta Capena to Capua; Julius Cæsar from Capua to Benevento; and Augustus thence to Brundusium. It was laid with hard stone brought from a great distance, large, and squared so exactly, as to need no cement; and it was sufficiently wide for several wagons to go abreast. Satius calls it the queen of roads. Its course is described by Horace, Strabo, and Antonine. Caius Gracchus placed stones along it, called cippi and termini, to mark the miles, afford foot passengers resting seats, and enable equestrian travellers to mount, there being no stirrups used. Great part of this road still remains entire.

APPLE TREE. One of the most valuable fruit trees in the world: this excellent tree is said to have been brought into Italy from Syria and Africa, a very few years before the nativity of our Saviour. Apple trees should be kept from their first growth pruned in such a manner as to spread very much, rather than to run up tall; they should be cleared from limbs which stop and choak out the free circulation of the air. From May to November, manure enough to smother and kill the grass, should be put about the stems of the young trees; but after the beginning of November, it should carefully be removed, as the field mice would otherwise gnaw the bark, and spoil the trees.

is drawn off, and placed in clean, tight barrels or casks, to stand till it is fine and clear; it is then racked off from the lees, and kept in casks or bottled for use. A portion of brandy and a little flowers of sulphur render it more pure, and less likely to grow hard and sour.

APPOINTMENT. Denotes a pension, given by princes to persons of worth, to retain them in their service. The term was chiefly used among the French before the revolution. The kings of France gave large appointments to officers in their service. They differed from wages, in that the latter were fixed and ordinary, being paid by the ordinary treasurers, whereas appointments were annual and granted by brevet, for a time uncertain, and paid out of the privy purse.

APPRAISING. The valuing or setting a price on goods. This is usually done by a sworn appraiser, who, if he values the goods too high, is obliged to take them at the price appraised.

APPREHENSION. In logic, the first or most simple act of the mind, whereby it perceives, or is conscious of some idea: it is more usually called perception.

APPRENTICE. A learner, pupil, or student. Among traders or manufacturers, an apprentice is one who, upon certain conditions, and particularly that of being instructed in his master's art or trade, engages to serve his said master for a certain term of years, under a written indenture or agreement.

All good apples, and many of the common kinds, are produced by the process termed grafting. This is performed by inserting young twigs or shoots from trees bearing fine fruit into stocks of inferior APPRENTICESHIP. The ancients had nokinds, raised upon every farm, from the pomace of thing similar to our apprenticeships, not even a term the cider-mill. Crab-stocks are thought to answer of corresponding signification. The mechanical best in England, but all kinds are made use of in arts were carried on, among the Greeks and Rothe U. States. The branches formed by the twig mans, by slaves. Apprenticeships in these and the inserted are found to bear fruit corresponding in liberal arts and professions grew up in the middle quality to the tree from which it was cut. The ages, when the members of a particular trade or same process is pursued with all other kinds of profession formed a corporation. These corporafruit-trees; for inoculated or ingrafted fruit is al- tions belong to those many institutions recorded in ways found to be the best. The kinds of apples history, which were once necessary, and had usemost highly prized in all countries are the varieties ful effects, but which a change of circumstances, of pippin. The pippins of New York, New Jersey and revolutions in the social condition, as well as and Pennsylvania are the richest in flavor of any many abuses to which they became subject, have apples known in the U. States; while the greening, rendered in most cases, inexpedient. They have the pearmain, and gilliflower, are the best fruit of generally been abolished. One of these abuses, in New England; and the varieties of russet-apple relation to trades, was the long period of service the most lasting, being often found in a good con- required in the apprenticeships, as it was evidently dition at midsummer of the next year. The com- for the interest of the masters, who were already mon family uses of the apple are too familiar to admitted to the practice of a trade, or made free of need specification; but its most important applica- a corporation, to make the time of service as long, tion is to the manufacture of cider. The process or the consideration for admission into the compafor making the best cider is simple; perhaps quite ny as high, as they could. In some countries, anoas much so as any mode of spoiling it. The apples ther abuse crept in, viz., a very great latitude of should be sorted according to their degrees of ripe-discretion and authority allowed to masters in the ness, &c., and left a few days in heaps to ripen, if necessary, They should then be ground in a mill, till they are entirely bruised. They are afterwards allowed to stand a day or two in open vessels or troughs, and then pressed between haircloths or layers of clean straw; the last is not so good, from absorbing and wasting a portion of the juice. The liquor running from the press is then received into a vat, or large casks, till it has fermented, when it

treatment of their apprentices, many of whom were, accordingly, treated with great harshness and severity. The usual time of service was seven years, and the custom of apprenticeships was extended to almost every trade and profession.

Long apprenticeships are altogether unnecessary. The arts, which are much superior to common trades, such as those of making clocks and watches, contain no such mystery as to require a long course

of instruction. In common mechanic trades, the lessons of a few days might certainly be sufficient. The dexterity of hand, indeed, even in common trades, cannot be acquired without much practice and experience. But a young man would practise with much more diligence and attention, if from the beginning, he wrought as a journeyman, being paid in proportion to the little work which he could execute, and paying, in his turn, for the materials which he might sometimes spoil through awkwardness and inexperience. His education would generally in this way be more effectual, and always less tedious and expensive. The master, indeed, would be a loser; he would lose all the wages of the apprentice, which he now saves for seven years together. In the end, perhaps, the apprentice himself would be a loser: in a trade so easily learnt he would have more competitors; and his wages, when he came to be a complete workman, would be much less than at present. The same increase of competition would reduce the profits of the masters, as well as the wages of the workmen: the trades, the crafts, the mysteries would all be losers; but the public would be a gainer, the work of all artificers coming in this way much cheaper to market.

APPROXIMATION. In general a getting near to an object; in mathematics, a continual approach to a root or quantity sought, but not expected to be found.

APPULSE. The approach of any planet towards a star, or the sun. Some writers employ the word appulse when the two celestial bodies are apparently in contact; while others, extending its signification, used it as synonymous with occultation, when the one body is completely obscured, or hid by the other.

APPURTENANCES. In common law, signify things corporeal and incorporeal, that appertain to another thing as principal; as hamlets to a manor, and common of pasture and fishery. Things must agree in nature and quality to be appurtenant, as a turbary, or a seat in a church, to a house.

APRICOT. A fruit of the plum tribe, which grows wild in several parts of Armenia, and was introduced into England about the middle of the sixteenth century. Some consider the apricot the most delicate of all our hardy fruits. For pastry, certainly none is more excellent. It is used for tarts, both green and ripe; it is also preserved with sugar in both these states, and is sometimes dried as a sweet-meat. Care should be taken to gather it before it becomes soft and mealy. The kernels of apricots have a pleasantly bitter flavor, and answer much better, for several purposes in confectionary than bitter almonds, which are commonly used. They likewise contain a sweet oil, which, like that of almonds, was formerly used in emulsions. The gum that issues from the apricot-tree is similar to that of the cherry. The wood is coarsely grained and soft, and is consequently seldom used in carpentry. Apricot-trees are chiefly raised against walls, and are propagated by grafting upon plum

tree stocks.

"to open," the fourth month of the year, because the buds now expand into leaves; the suddenness with which most trees and shrubs become covered with foliage, affords at once pleasure and surprise. April is, however, a fickle and changeable month; its day has been called by the poets "many-weathered;" consisting often of sunshine, storm, rain, and sometimes snow.

This month, is much occupied in sowing various seeds, both in the field, and in gardens. Grafting of the apple and pear is also now performed; the time of doing this depends, however, upon the progress which vegetation has made: the pear earlier, in general, than the apple.

Towards the end of the month, many of the summer birds of passage salute us with their songs; such are the cuckoo, the nightingale, the black cap, &c. The swallow and the martin are also seen skimming over our fields, and around our dwellings. Of flowers, both in fields and in gardens, the numbers are increased; the lilac begins to put forth its fragrance; the woodbine, the wall-flower, the cowslip, &c. are also, towards the end of the month, bright,beautiful, and odoriferous; the cuckoo-flower too peeps up in moist meadows; and the daisy and the harebell add to the variety of the scene. Auriculars and polyanthuses are now in fine bloom. The plum, and the cherry, and the pear are also now in bloom; and, towards the end of the month, the apple flings its fragrance to the breeze.

APSIDES. The two points of a planet's orbit, in which it is at its greatest and least distance from the sun, are called by this name; and the line which joins them, is called the line of apsides. In the different planets it is directed to different points in the heavens.

APYROUS. A word applied to denote that property of some bodies, by which they resist the most violent fire without any sensible alteration. Apyrous bodies ought to be distinguished from those which are refractory. Refractory substances are those which cannot by violent heat be fused, whatever other alteration they may sustain. But a body, properly speaking, apyrous, can neither be fused by heat, nor undergo any other change. Diamonds were long thought to be possessed of this property; but experiments have shown that diamonds may be entirely dissipated or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not entitled to be ranked among apyrous substances. Perhaps there is no body in nature essentially and vigorously apyrous. But it is sufficient that there be bodies apyrous relatively to the degree of fire which art can produce, to entitle them to that name.

AQUA-FORTIS. The nitrous acid of a certain strength, and so called from its dissolving power; but, when in a concentrated and smoking state, it is denominated spirit of nitre. It is made by distilling equal parts of crude nitre with calcined vitriol; or by carefully mixing one part of oil of vitriol with nine of pure spirit of nitre.

As this powerful liquid is used for various purposes in the arts and manufactures, but chiefly by dyers, brassfounders, hatters, &c. great caution should be observed, both in preparing and employAPRIL. From the latin, aprilis, from aperio, ing it, because it possesses a very caustic property,

and its fumes are highly deleterious to the organs of respiration. Hence those artisans frequently become subject to convulsive coughing and bloodspitting, paralytic affections, trembling, paleness of countenance, loose teeth, the loss of smell and taste, and at length, pulmonary consumption. In order to prevent these fatal effects, we seriously advise them to make use of oily and bland nourishment, and externally to secure the mouth and nose, by tying a handkerchief round those parts, while they are exposed to the fumes of this volatile acid.

But in casualties where a person has, by mistake, swallowed a portion of aqua-fortis, the following treatment will be the most proper for averting iminent danger of suffocation. Immediately after the accident, lukewarm water ought to be drunk in the greatest possible quantity, even to the amount of several gallons, to weaken the causticity of the poison. Next, a solution of half an ounce of salt of tartar, or clean pearl-ashes, in one pint of water, should be taken in about six or eight small draughts; and as the effervescence thus occasioned in the stomach, greatly tends to weaken that organ, it will be necessary to make use of more water, and other diluent, oily, or mucilaginous drinks.

We are of opinion that a solution of borax, or tincal, in the proportion of three drams to a pint of water, forms a more effectual antidote than the vegetable alkali; because the former, by uniting with acids, causes no effervescence. There are instances of persons having completely obviated the ill effects of this poison, simply by drinking small portions of sweet oil, frequently repeated, for three days successively.

If, however, the sensation of a burning pain in the stomach and bowels should not subside, after plentiful vomiting, large draughts of sweet cow's milk must be swallowed, with the addition of one dram, or sixty drops, of liquid tartar, usually called oil of tartar, to each pint. But previously to the expulsion of the poison by vomiting, or the neutralizing of it with alkaline solutions, neither milk, oily, nor saponaceous draughts, can be taken with advantage. Hence these ought to conclude the cure; during which, the patient may frequently use gargarisms and clysters of the same liquids, which are directed to be taken internally. Indeed, after the poisonous fluid has left the stomach, and entered the intestinal canal, the principal benefit will be derived from emollient and balsamic injections.

AQUA-REGIA. Is a compound of the nitrous and marine acids, in different proportions, according to the purpose for which it is required; and usually made, by dissolving sal ammoniac, or common salt, in nitrous acid. When the former is employed, the usual proportion is one of this salt to four of the acid; but equal parts will be necessary to dissolve platina.

Aqua-regia is used as a menstruum for gold: it likewise dissolves all other metals, silver alone excepted. The best kind for the abovementioned purpose, is a preparation of three parts of the pure marine, with one of the nitrous, acid. One hundred grains of gold require for their solution two hundred and forty-six of this mixture. Concerning the nature and cure of those casualties which

may arise from an improvident use of this power ful solvent, we refer to the preceding article.

AQUARIUS. The water-carrier; in astronomy, the eleventh sign in the Zodiac, reckoning from Aries; from which, also, the eleventh part of the ecliptic takes its name. The name is supposed to have been given to it, because, when it appears in the horizon, the weather usually proves rainy. The sun moves through Aquarius in the month of January. The stars in this constellation, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are 45; in Tycho's, 41; in Hevelius's, 47; and in Flamstead's, 108.

The

AQUATINTA. A style of engraving, or rather etching, by which an effect is produced similar to that of a drawing in Indian ink. For the performance of the machanical part of this art, the principal thing necessary is the following powder: Take equal portions of asphaltum and fine transparent rosin, suppose two ounces, and pound them separately: then, with a muslin sieve, the rim of which may be formed of part of a chip box of three or four inches diameter, alternately sift thin strata of the asphaltum and rosin upon paper, till the powders are exhausted: then pass the mixture through the same sieve upon paper, once or twice, so as to render the incorporation complete, and it will be fit for use: or, according to some, powdered gum sandarach alone will answer the purpose. The act of aquatinting is to be performed as follows: The outline being etched upon the plate in the usual manner, the ground is to be softened with a little grease, and then wiped clean with a soft rag, so as only to leave a dimness on the surface of the copper. powder already described is now to be sifted upon the plate; and the latter, afterward, struck upon its edge, to the end that all the powder not detained by the grease may fall off. This done, the back of the plate is to be held with a hand-vice over a charcoal fire, or lamp, till it becomes so hot as to give pain, if touched. The powder which adhered to the grease, will now be fixed to the plate. The plate being suffered to cool, take turpentine varnish mixed with ivory-black, and with this, by means of a hair pencil, cover all the lights, or parts where it is intended that the paper shall be left perfectly white. The aqua-fortis is now to be used as in common etching. Suffer it to remain on the plate five minutes, for the lightest tint; after which pour it off, and set the plate on its edge to dry: then with the varnish stop out the light shades, and proceed in the same manner for the several tints that are required, adding the deepest last, when all the fainter are completed and covered. On the fineness of the powder depends that variation in the grain of the tint, which is observed in different prints, or in different parts of the same. In Paris, aquatinted designs are printed in colours; for which purpose, several plates must be used, on each of which only the parts that are of the same colour are to be etched.

AQUA TOFANA. A poisonous liquor which was used to a very great extent at Naples and Rome during the latter half of the 17th century. Genelin says that more people were destroyed by it than by the plague, which had prevailed a short time before

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