vessel was not a British ship. The governor's contention was that although her registry had expired, she was entitled to protection; besides, the Chinese did not know of the expiry of the registry, and hence that the act was none the less an outrage on the flag. Yeh was obstinate in his refusal, and war followed.

The views of British statesmen and historians differ greatly as to the merits of the war, but there is a general concurrence of sentiment that the affair of the Arrow was not of itself a sufficient justification for hostilities. The matter is well stated by Lord Elgin in his report to his government: "I think I have given to the Arrow case as much prominence as it deserves, when I represent it as the drop which has caused the cup to overflow." But in his private journal he frankly refers to "that wretched question of the Arrow, which is a scandal to us, and is so considered, I have reason to know, by all except the few who are personally compromised. It was merely the culmination of a series of acts on the part of the Chinese which brought on the hostilities, and was not of itself a just cause of war.” 1 The origin of the "series of acts" referred to may, in most cases, be found in the extensive system of smuggling of the East India Company's opium.

1

Although the government of the United States did not think proper to follow the example of Great

1 For official reports relative to Arrow War see various British Parliamentary Blue Books, "China," 1856-60; 3 McCarthy's Hist. chaps. xxx. and xlii.; Boulger's Hist. chap. xix.; Douglas's China, chap. ix. ; Williams's Hist. chap. vi.; Martin's Cathay, pt. i. chap. x.; Nevius's China, 301-12; N. A. Review, January, 1860, p. 125; S. Ex. Doc. 22, 35th Cong. 2d Sess. 984.

Britain in its hostile action, it is to be noted that its successive ministers, who were subjected to the insolence of Yeh and the indifference of the Chinese government to their repeated representations, expressed to their government the conviction that the only way to secure respect and justice from the Chinese was by a manifestation of force. Mr. Marshall wrote the Secretary of State that "the Chinese government . . . concedes justice only in the presence of a force able and willing to exact it." Mr. McLane, referring to his troubles with Yeh, reported that "diplomatic intercourse can only be had with this government at the cannon's mouth." The peaceful Dr. Parker was so aroused by the many indignities shown to his government that he strongly favored an alliance of the United States with Great Britain in the war.1

Following close upon the affair of the lorcha Arrow, an event occurred which for the moment seemed destined to bring the United States into a union with Great Britain in the war upon which it had entered. While proceeding in a boat from the United States squadron in the lower river to Canton, Captain Foote was fired upon from the Chinese forts, and the day after a surveying party from the squadron was also fired upon and one of its members killed. In both instances the American flag was prominently displayed. For these acts Commodore Armstrong determined upon summary punishment. November 16, 1856, the day of the second firing on the flag, he sent the Portsmouth,

1 H. Ex. Doc. 123, 33d Cong. 1st Sess. 11; S. Ex. Doc. 22 (cited), 22, 1083.

under command of Captain Foote, afterwards distinguished in the Civil War, to attack the forts from which the firing on the boats had occurred, and they were soon silenced.

On the next day the commodore addressed a note to Commissioner Yeh, demanding an explanation and a suitable apology within twenty-four hours. Before the time had expired, however, seeing active work progressing towards the restoration of the damaged forts, the commodore ordered another attack, and the forts were taken by assault and destroyed. Seven Americans were killed and twenty-two wounded, while the loss of the Chinese was reported at three hundred. A communication from Yeh was received before the second attack was made, but it proved to be of an unsatisfactory nature; and further correspondence followed. Yeh claimed that, in view of the hostilities conducted by the British at and in the vicinity of Canton, boats of other nationalities ought to keep away from the scene of war, and that mistakes as to flags would not then occur. But the severe punishment which had been inflicted upon the Chinese forts did not seem to have given him much offense, for he finally wrote the commodore, "There is no matter of strife between our two nations. Henceforth let the fashion of the flag which American ships employ be clearly defined, and inform me what it is beforehand. This will be a verification of the friendly relations between our countries." Of such little importance was the affair in the mind of this oriental dignitary.

Yeh's letter ended the correspondence, and the attack of the American navy on the Barrier forts was a

closed incident. It was the only act of warlike violence by American authorities on the Chinese till a half century afterwards, when a division of the army of the United States marched to the relief of its beleaguered minister and citizens at Peking. Such a prompt and peaceful settlement was a disappointment to the British, as they earnestly desired the coöperation of the United States in the campaign which they were prepar ing against the Chinese.1

The government at Washington saw no occasion to give further attention to the engagement between the navy and the Barrier forts, but certain occurrences in connection with the bombardment of Canton by the British seemed to call for further inquiry. The press accounts of that affair reported that the American consuls at Canton and Hongkong were both present at the assault and participated in it, and that the latter headed a body of United States marines carrying the American flag. The charge was likewise made by Commissioner Yeh. Secretary Marcy strongly condemned any violation of the neutral attitude of the United States, and ordered Minister Parker to make a thorough investigation, authorizing him, in case the charge against the consul at Hongkong was well founded, to remove the latter from his post.

The consul at Canton in his official report says that on entering the city half an hour after the walls were carried, "I found the English in full possession of the place the officers, the soldiers, and the sailors helping

1 S. Ex. Doc. 22 (cited), 1020, 1042; N. A. Review, Oct. 1859, p. 512; Harper's Mag. Oct. 1898, p. 741.

themselves to what they pleased. I met his excellency, Admiral Seymour, within the palace, who kindly gave me permission to take a few articles as mementos of the occurrence of the day." It seems that looting of Chinese palaces was practiced long before the occupation of Peking in the year 1900, and that the practice was demoralizing to even a neutral consul. Both he and the consul at Hongkong protested their innocence of any violation of their neutral duties, alleging that their presence was induced merely by curiosity, and the latter stoutly denied that he was responsible for the presence of the American flag. It appears that the national emblem was within the walls and in the hands of an American marine, but not authorized by any officer of the government. The investigation failed to establish any violation of neutral duty, but showed that the sympathies of the American colony were plainly with their kinsmen.1

The British preparations for the campaign which had been resolved upon, to bring the Chinese government to terms respecting a revision of the treaties and a redress of grievances, was delayed for a full year, on account of the Sepoy revolt in India. In the mean time the foreign factories (mercantile establishments) at Canton were destroyed by fire, and commerce was suspended. Dr. Parker was busily occupied in his efforts to protect American interests in this time of disorder, and in seeking to induce the Chinese authorities to give attention and satisfaction to American demands. He felt that the British were pursuing the only policy

1 S. Ex. Doc. 22 (cited), 1048, 1319, 1383; N. A. Rev. Oct. 1859, pp. 508-11.