illicit business. After some days of delay and negotiation through the hong merchants, fully determined to have every chest of opium on the ships or in the factories delivered up, Commissioner Lin caused the factory settlement to be entirely surrounded. On the water side were stationed a fleet of armed boats, and on the land side a double row of soldiers, while all the streets were walled up, leaving only one exit. The books and accounts of the merchants were seized; the Chinese clerks and servants were taken from them; no intercourse was allowed with the outside world, -even the supply of provisions was cut off; and the foreigners were held in their factories as strict prisoners. The British superintendent protested and threatened, but to no purpose. At last he delivered over to the Chinese authorities every chest of opium in the settlement, amounting to 22,283 chests, of the estimated value of $8,000,000. Of this number 1540 chests were held by the American merchants, but the consul reported that they were all British property, and as such surrendered to the British superintendent.

After the delivery of the opium, trade was again opened; but under the direction of the superintendent all the British residents left Canton. The American consul sympathized with the British in this movement; but his countrymen did not see proper to follow that course of action, and remained in Canton actively engaged in business till the British blockade of the port was established. The blockade and active hostilities did not begin till about a year after these events; but the British government at once began warlike prepara

tions to avenge what it alleged to be the insult to its representative and the destruction of the property of its subjects.

The British superintendent, upon delivering up the opium, communicated to his home government his conviction that the Chinese authorities would cause the confiscated property to be sold, and profit by the sale; but the entire quantity was wholly and completely destroyed, and for the time being an end was put to the hateful traffic. The commissioner had thoroughly executed the orders of his sovereign, but in doing so he had initiated a conflict with the Western powers which was destined to vex the empire for many years to come, and ultimately to transform its relations with the outside world.1

It is beyond the scope of this volume to enter upon a detailed account of the "Opium War." No formal declaration of war was made by the British government, and no official explanation of its cause or purpose was given to the public other than an order in council to the Admiralty, stating that "satisfaction and reparation for the late injurious proceedings of certain officers of the emperor of China against certain of our officers and subjects shall be demanded from the Chinese government." A blockade of Canton was established June 22, 1840, and hostilities began July 5. After some indecisive operations along the coast, the fortifications which defended Canton were destroyed, and that city

1 For American consul's report and official documents, H. Ex. Doc. 119 (cited), 13-85. For chronological order of events and citation of documents, 11 Chinese Repository, 345, 401.

was ransomed from assault by the payment of $6,000,000. Amoy, Ningpo, and Shanghai successively fell into British hands. Chinkiang was taken by assault, sacked, and destroyed with horrible slaughter. Nanking was invested, and when about to be attacked the Chinese sued for peace.

All the boasted prowess of their generals had come to naught. They had been overwhelmingly defeated in every encounter with the British, and to save their ancient capital from destruction the emperor's plenipotentiaries made haste to accept the terms dictated by the victors. The treaty, signed August 29, 1842, provided for the opening of the ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuchau (Foo-chow), Ningpo, and Shanghai to British trade and residence; the island of Hongkong was ceded; $21,000,000 was to be paid as a war indemnity, of which $6,000,000 was for the opium destroyed, and $3,000,000 for debts due British subjects; a tariff of import and export duties was to be agreed upon, and official correspondence was to be conducted on terms of equality.1

A singular feature of the treaty was that no attempt was made in it to adjust the matter which had been the immediate occasion of the war, the importation of opium. After the treaty was signed it appears that there was some discussion of the subject between the negotiators, initiated by the British plenipotentiary, who

1 For treaty, see Treaties, Conventions, etc., Chinese Customs Edition, 107; for documentary history of the war, Chinese Repository, vols. 8 to 12; China during the War, etc., Sir John F. Davis, London, 1852; Narrative of Events in China, by Captain G. G. Loch, London, 1843; Williams's Hist. China, chap. iv.

referred to "the great cause which produced the disturbances which led to the war, viz., the trade in opium." The Chinese plenipotentiaries asked why the British "would not act fairly towards them by prohibiting the growth of the poppy in their dominions, and thus effectually stop a traffic so pernicious to the human race." The British answer was that this could not be done in consistency with their constitutional laws; that even if they ceased to bring opium to China the Chinese would procure the drug from some other source; and that it would be better to legitimatize the importation under proper regulations. But the Chinese replied that "their imperial master would never listen to a word on that subject." And after the war the illicit practice continued, to the physical and moral injury of the Chinese, and to the great financial profit of the British.1

The moral aspects of the war were at the time and have been since much discussed. The general judg ment may be stated to be in condemnation of the British for the encouragement and maintenance of the trade, so injurious to the Chinese people, and so strongly condemned by their authorities. They were not justified in inaugurating hostilities because of the seizure and destruction of the opium, - an article made contraband by the laws of China and subject to confiscation. On the other hand, a conflict was recognized as inevitable and necessary to compel the Chinese government to treat other nations and their officials upon terms of equality,

1 Narrative of Events, etc., by Captain Loch, 173; 1 China during the War, etc., by Davis, 18. As to condition of trade after the war, 2 Montgomery Martin's China, chap. vi.

and to establish intercourse with the world in accordance with modern methods. Dr. W. A. P. Martin, a close student of Chinese affairs and a resident of the country for half a century, says that nothing could be more erroneous than to charge England with waging the war for the sole purpose of compelling the Chinese to keep an open market for the product of her Indian poppyfields; but he adds, referring to the treatment of Lord Napier in 1834 and to other similar events, "interest had to combine with indignation before she could be aroused to action." Dr. Nevius, an American missionary long a resident of China, wrote: "Justifiable or not, it [the Opium War] was made use of in God's providence to inaugurate a new era in our relations with this vast empire."

John Quincy Adams, in the address referred to before the Massachusetts Historical Society in November, 1841, took the ground that Great Britain was entirely justified in the war. The prevailing sentiment in the United States will be seen by the following extracts from Mr. Adams's diary: "Nov. 20, 1841. They [the Parliamentary papers] all confirm me in the view taken in my lecture which is so adverse to the prevailing prejudices of the time and place that I expect to bring down a storm upon my head worse than that with which I am already afflicted." He records the refusal "in a very delicate manner" of the North American Review to publish the lecture, and adds, December 3, 1841, "The excitement of public opinion and feeling by the delivery of this lecture far exceeds