leaves a portion of his wealth to the Mosques of Kerbela, that his body may be received there.' There is a tariff regulated by the place sought to be occupied by the body; the maximum having to be paid by those who desire to lie near the tomb of the Imaum Hussein. The air of Kerbela is very unwholesome, owing to the stagnant waters, and the great number of corpses of the dead brought thither by the caravan.

The ensuing is from Maundrell (p. 173): 'Very early this morning, we went to see the yearly great pomp of the Hadgus, setting out on their pilgrimage to Mecca; Ostan, basha of Tripoli, being appointed their emir or conductor for this year. For our better security from the insolences of the overzealous votaries, we hired a shop in one of the bazaars through which they were to pass. In this famous cavalcade, there came first forty-six dellees, that is, religious madmen, carrying each a silk streamer, mixed either of red and green, or of yellow and green; after these came three troops of segmen, an order of soldiers among the Turks; and next to them, some troops of spahees, another order of soldiery. These were followed by eight companies of mugrubines (so the Turks call the Barbaroses) on foot: these were fellows of a very formidable aspect, and were designed to be left in a garrison, maintained by the Turks, somewhere in the desert of Arabia, and relieved every year with fresh men. In the midst of the mugrubines, there passed six small pieces of ordinance. In the next place came on foot the soldiers of the castle of Damascus, fantastically armed with coats of mail, gauntlets, and other pieces of old armour. These were followed by troops of janizaries, and their aga, all mounted. Next were brought the basha's two horse tails, ushered by the aga of the court; and next after the tails, followed six led horses, all of excellent shape, and nobly furnished. Over the saddle there was a girt upon each led horse, and a large silver target, gilded with gold. After these horses came the mahmal. This is a large pavilion of black silk, pitched upon the back of a very great camel, and spreading its curtains all round about the beast, down to the ground. The pavilion is adorned at top with a gold ball, and with gold fringes round about. The camel that carries it, wants not also his ornaments of large ropes of beads, fish-shells, fox-tails, and other such fantastical finery hanged upon his head, neck, and legs. All this is designed for the Alcoran, which is placed with great reverence under the pavilion, where it rides in state both to and from Mecca. The Alcoran is accompanied with a rich new carpet, which the grand signieur sends every year for the covering of Mahomet's tomb, having the old one brought back in return for it, which is esteemed of inestimable value, after having been so long

next neighbour to the prophet's rotten bones. The beast which carries this sacred load has the privilege to be exempted from all other burdens ever after. After the mahmal came another troop, and with them the basha himself; and last of all, twenty loaded camels, with which the train ended, having been three quarters of an hour in passing.'

CONCUBINE (L. from cum, with, and cubitus, a bed) is a word that points to a practice which was, and still to a great extent is, universal in the East-namely, that of polygamy, of which concubinage is an almost necessary attendant; for when once the strict oneness of sexual intercourse is interfered with, there is nothing but passion to set limits to indulgence. The passage, therefore, especially in an age of semi-barbarism, from polygamy to concubinage, is easy and rapid. Among the Hebrews, as well as other Eastern peoples, every husband might, in addition to one wife or several (2 Sam. v. 13. 1 Kings xi. 3. 2 Chron. xi. 21. Cant. vi. 8), especially when these were childless (Gen. xvi. 3; xxx. 3), have a coucubine or concubines, which were generally selected from his own slaves, or those of his wife (Gen. xxii. 24; xxxvi. 12. Judg. viii. 31. 2 Sam. iii. 7. 1 Chron. i. 32; comp. Exod. xxi. 8). The sons of these coneubines stood in regard to the patrimony, after the children born of the wife (Gen. xxi. 10; xxiv. 36), and could look only to free-will presents from the father in the disposal of his property (Gen. xxv. 6). But while this extreme latitude was conceded to the male, the female concubine was restricted to her master (Judg. xix. 2. 2 Sam. iii. 7. Lev. xix. 20). It was not unusual for fathers to give to an unmarried son a slave as his concubine, who was to be treated as a child of the family; and, in the event of the son's marriage, she still retained her rights of concubinage (Exod. xxi. 9, 10). But if a son slept with his father's concubine, he lost his right of inheritance (Gen. xxxv. 22. 1 Chron. v. 1). Some Rabbins find the distinction between a wife and a concubine, in the absence, in the latter case, of espousals and right of dower; others, only in the want of the latter. It is evident, however, that the rank and position from which the two were taken, were very dissimilar; and this dissimilarity of rank, and of (to some extent) consequent culture, would aid the wife, on whose side the advantage lay, in maintaining her position as mistress of the family. At the same time, the presence of more than one female in a family, standing in the most intimate relation to its head, cannot have conduced to any thing but domestic confusion, though custom has great power in modifying social influences, and the necessity of order strongly tends to produce it.

The whole sphere of thought and act, into which we have now taken a glance, is very

foreign to the views and habits of the present day, and seems to us utterly inconsistent with domestic peace and high personal culture. Whence we may learn the impropriety of confounding the Old with the New Testament, by which, in truth, we reduce the latter to the level of the former. As the record of a revealed system of religious polity, the Old Testament is of undecaying value; but our morality must be learned from Jesus Christ exclusively.

CONCUPISCENCE (L. an earnest desire) is the representative of a Greek word which denotes a vehement emotion, by which we are borne on towards an object, and is hence equivalent to our long for,' or 'lust after.' The original is accordingly rendered, in our version, lusts' (Mark iv. 19), 'desire' (Luke xxii. 15), as well as concupiscence' (1 Thess. iv. 5. Col. iii. 5).

CONDUIT (L. compare conduct), a word which occurs in the English Bible, in 2 Kings xx. 20, &c.; and is explained by the rendering given in Job xxxviii. 25, namely, water

course.

CONEY, from the Latin cuniculus, a rabbit, stands for the Hebrew Shaphan, which, from a root signifying to leap, denotes the mus montanus, or Jerboa. Some, however, prefer understanding by Shaphan the Hyrax Syriacus, or Gnaman, from whose flesh the Mohammedans and Eastern Christians abstain: the Shaphan was classed among unclean animals (Levit. xi. 5). Its other characteristics, as far as they are made known in Scripture, may be found in the following passages, Deut. xiv. 7. Ps. civ. 18. Prov. xxx. 26; from which it appears that conies ruminated, frequented rocky places, which were their ordinary abode, and were a feeble folk.' The Syrian hyrax, however, is said to be neither rodent like rabbits, nor ruminant, but anomalous

rocks, and be of gentle and timid habits. The Jerboa, on the other hand, whose jumping mode of locomotion corresponds with the root-meaning of Shaphan, and who prefers high and rocky haunts, is reported to 'chew the cud.' It is also in favour of this view that Jerome explains the rendering of the Septuagint by a word which is found to signify the Jerboa. This is a small animal, of the size of a rat, but rather resembling a hare in shape, above seven inches long, with a broad flat head, short stumpy nose, and long bald ears. The fore feet, which are short, are placed near the neck. The hinder feet are three times their length, and half as long as the whole body; so that the animal springs or leaps like grasshoppers, and with great swiftness. The colour of the head and back is a bright brown: that of the belly and sides is white. The tail, said to be three times the length of the whole animal, is furnished at the end with a tuft of hair, and serves its owner, in jumping, for a rudder.

The failure of identity in this particular makes seriously against the hyrax Syriacus being the animal intended by Shaphan, though the hyrax may reside in clefts of

JERBOA.

CONFECTION is a word of Latin origin, equivalent to the Saxon term making, or something made. It represents a Hebrew word, which signifies to compound or put together aromatic or highly seasoned materials, such as fragrant herbs: hence come the several meanings ascribed to the word (Rahkagh) in the Bible, as to compound' (Exod. XXX. 33); apothecary' (Exod. xxx. 25); 'spice' (Ezek. xxiv. 10); 'ointment' (Exod. XXX. 25); 'confection' (Exod. xxx. 35); 'confectionaries' (1 Sam. viii. 13). The word confection' stands for the holy anointing oil, which was to be made of certain specified sweet spices, and appropriated exclusively to sacred purposes (Exod. xxx. 34, seq.). 'Confection,' in Sheridan's Dictionary, is said to mean a sweetmeat; hence our confectioner, and the corrupt word comfits.

CONFEDERACY (L. cum, with, and fœdus, a treaty), an agreement generally for political purposes (Gen. xiv. 13. Obad. 7). The original word is for the most part rendered 'covenant' (see the article); also, 'league' (2 Sam. iii. 12; v. 3).

CONFIRMATION (L. cum, and firmus, firm, strong) is the rendering of a Greek word of similar import, which signifies strengthening, establishing, or ratifying (Phil. i. 7. Heb. vi. 16).

CONFISCATION,-a compound Latin word, which means the taking away of the property of a person, and putting it into the public treasury (cum and fiscus). It is the rendering, in Ezra vii. 26, of a Hebrew word, Ganash, which, in other passages, is translated by amerce' (Deut. xxii. 19); and 'punish' (Prov. xvii. 26).

CONFOUND (L. cum, with, and fundo, I pour) signifies to pour together, as metals under the influence of fire, and so, to mingle confusedly; hence, to disarrange, disappoint, put to shame. The tongues at Babel are said to have been confounded' (Gen. xi. 9; comp. mingled,' in Exod. xxix. 40). The enemies of the Psalmist are confounded,' which is immediately explained by the words, 'for they are brought unto shame' (Ps. lxxi. 24; comp. Jer. xiv. 3, 4).

CONGEALED (L. cum, with, and gelu, frost), hardened as by the action of frost, frozen. The epithet is applied in Exod. XV. 8, to the waters of the Red Sea, made solid like a wall on either side of the Israelites, in their passage, when flying from Pharaoh. CONGREGATION (L. cum, with, and orex, a flock), a flocking together, a meeting, or assembly. It is used of the assembled Israelites, as church is the appropriate name for an assembly of Christians (Numb. x. 7. 1 Kings viii. 14). The original is sometimes rendered 'multitude' (Gen. xxviii. 8); 'assembly' (Deut. v. 22); and sometimes company' (Ezek. xxiii. 46).

CONSCIENCE (L. cum, with, and scio, I know), according to its etymology, denotes self-knowledge; and hence the feeling of our moral condition, which self-contemplation occasions. This feeling is accompanied by approbation or disapprobation. From these moral sentiments comes a sense of merit or demerit, or right and wrong, in relation to our feelings, motives, and conduct. Hence, 'conscience,' in its more general import, signifies the complex feeling we have of right and wrong, both in the abstract, or as measured by some ideal standard, and relatively to our own moral condition at any particular moment. 'Conscience' is the translation of a Greek word of a similar derivative signification in John viii. 9. Acts xxiii. 1; xxiv. 16, and other places.

CONSECRATE (cum, with, and sacer, sacred), to appropriate to sacred purposes. See ANATHEMA.

CONSORTED (L. cum, with, and sors, lot), is the representative of a Greek word of the same etymological formation, denoting to cast in one's lot with another, as the husband in wedlock takes his wife 'for better for worse, for richer for poorer.' In a similar manner, some believers at Thessalonica, 'consorted with Paul and Silas' (Acts xvii. 4).

CONVERSATION (L.) signifies, at present, verbal communication between two or more persons; but, in the early periods of our language, its meaning, more in accordance with the derivation of the word (cum, and versor, to turn or have intercourse with), denoted the general bearing and conduct of a person with his fellow-men. Hence it came to signify manner of life. It is used in this import by Chaucer, in these words: 'If so be that he falle into thy compaignie, enquire of his conversation and of his lif beforne.'

'Conversation' is once (Ps. xxxvii. 14, 'such as be of upright conversation') the rendering of a Hebrew word, which signifies, and is generally translated, 'way' (Ps. i. 1; x. 5).

These remarks suffice to show the meaning to be attached to 'conversation,' in the New Testament (Gal. i. 13. Eph. iv. 22, &c.). But there is one passage which seems to need a few additional words. In Phil. iii. 20, the writer says - —'Our (Christian's) conversation is in heaven.' The word here employed, politeuma (from polis, a city), might with more propriety be rendered citizenship,' or 'country,' agreeably to the words of the Saviour himself, who declared that in his Father's house or home were many mansions prepared for those who loved and served him (John xiv. 2, 3).

CONVERSION (L. a turning) is found but once in the New Testament (Acts xv. 3), where its Greek equivalent is employed of the bringing of the Gentiles into the fold of Christ. Though the word occurs but once, the thing which it represents is the great instrumental aim of the gospel, whose purpose was and is to bring men into union with God by a change of heart and life, through faith in his dear Son.' This great and all-important change, without which there can be neither true religion nor durable peace, and without which man's highest good can by no means be wrought out, is frequently spoken of in Scripture by a word (metanoia) which literally signifies 'a change of mind,' but is invariably rendered in our version by repentance' (Matt. iii. 8, 11; ix. 13. Acts v. 31; xi. 18), though 'repentance' is only an early stage in such a 'change of mind' as the religion of Jesus requires. The prevalence of the word 'repentance' tends to obscure the meaning and impair the force of some passages. Thus John's mission would, from the use

of the word (Matt. iii. 11), appear to have contemplated nothing more than repentance or contrition,- an important feature, and often an essential condition, in a true and lasting conversion; but in truth he aimed at producing a change of mind' in his countrymen, in order that they might bring willing ears and docile affections to the great Teacher himself. Sometimes the force of metanoia is made more distinct and emphatic by adjuncts, - as in Acts xx. 21,

Testifying change of mind (conversion) towards God, and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ' (comp. 2 Tim. ii. 25). In Heb. xii. 17, the term appears to signify repentance properly so called; but this is only a derivative and secondary meaning of metanoia.

It is the doctrine of Scripture, that the mode of conversion, in individual cases, varies according to the good pleasure of its author, God, and the peculiar circumstances and condition of those who are its subjects (John iii. 8). The same authority places its necessity beyond a question (John iii. 3), and assigns as the test of its genuineness that faith which worketh by love' (John iii. 6; xiii. 35).

'To some hath God his word address'd
'Mid symbols of his ire,
And made his presence manifest

In whirlwind, storm, and fire;
Tracing, with burning lines of flame,
On trembling hearts his holy name.

To some the solemn voice has spoken
In life's serene retreat;

Where, on the still heart, sounds have broken
As from the mercy-seat,

Swelling in the soft harmonies

That float on Evening's tranquil breeze.'

CONVOCATION (L. cum and voco, I call), a calling together; an assembly called or convened by proper authority. Such is the import of the original Hebrew (Exod. xii. 16. Lev. xxiii. 2; comp. Isa. i. 13, and iv. 5).

COOS (or Cos), a small island in the Egean Sea, lying off the coast of Caria, to the north-west of the promontory of Cnidus. It was celebrated for its wine, its fine gauzelike vestments, and its costly ointment. Its chief city, of the same name, had a muchfrequented temple of Esculapius. Hippocrates was a native of the island. It was visited by Paul on his way to the imperial city (Acts xxi. 1; comp. 1 Macc. xv. 23). COPPER. See METALS.

CORAL (C. rubrum) was known to the ancients, who classed it among precious stones. Being found in various parts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which is said to have taken its name from the hue derived from its corals, this product of nature could hardly fail to be known to the Israelites. Yet it is only twice that the word occurs in our Bible, as the rendering of the Hebrew Rahmoth (Job xxviii. 18. Ezek.

xxvli. 10). In the first passage, King James's translators appear to have been uncertain whether they had given a correct rendering; for they place the original word itself in the margin; nor is it ascertained what species of precious stone the word was intended to denote.

Coral is the product of the coral insect, which, either by a division of its own substance or by throwing out a bud, produces a small mass of gelatinous substance, studded with apertures, inhabited by polypes or worms. This substance speedily attaches itself to a portion of rock, on which it grows, and to which it becomes permanently affixed. The worms obtain their food by the action of their cilia, like vibrating hairs, with which they agitate the water, and cause fresh currents, charged with animalculæ, to flow towards themselves. The minute mass gradually secretes an internal nucleus or skeleton of calcareous matter; and having, during its existence, given birth to other and similar colonies of polypes, the animal portion dies, and the gelatinous matter, with its families of polypes or worms, perishes; but the stony skeleton is left to form, by continual accumulations of this nature, coral reefs and islands.

CORBAN, a Hebrew word, found in Mark vii. 11, denoting a gift, offering, or sacrifice, devoted to God (Lev. ii. 1; vii. 38). The word occurs in a passage which requires some explanation, and which may be thus freely rendered: -But ye (Pharisees) say, If a man shall say to his father or mother, Corban, - that is, a gift, which I desire to offer for your good, ye no longer require him to do any thing for his father or mother;' that is, 'Ye teach that, if a son shall have once made an oblation for the welfare of his parents, he is acquitted of all obligation in regard to them.' In other words: 'Our religious offering for parents stands in place of a course of pious conduct towards them' (comp. Matt. xv. 5, 6; xxiii. 18).

There can be no doubt, that Matthew and Mark refer to the same event, and quote the same observation. They do so with a difference that merits some attention. Mark uses the Hebrew word Corban, and immediately explains it by a corresponding Greek term. Josephus does the same in these words: Such also as dedicate themselves to God as a corban, which denotes what the Greeks call a gift' ('Antiq.' iv. 4. 4). The resemblance is striking. Why did Josephus explain the Hebrew term? Because he was writing chiefly for pagan Greek and Roman- -readers. So far, then, as this one passage goes, Mark may be said to have had in view heathen readers; for writers of the Hebrew stock would no more require a translation of Corban, than Englishmen would need to have the term gift explained. But the term Corban would hardly have

occurred to a heathen writer. Whence arises an argument that Mark was a Jew.

Matthew, however, does not use the Hebrew word, but simply the Greek translation, doron, a gift,- - a fact which would agree with the supposition, that his Gospel, as we now have it, was translated or transferred directly from Hebrew into Greek, or that the writer of it had in his mind pagan, and not Hebrew readers.

CORIANDER, a genus of umbelliferous plants, the C. sativum of botanists, is, on some authority, believed to be the plant intended by the Hebrew Gad, used as a subject of comparison for manna, which is described as like coriander-seed, white' (Exod. xvi. 31. Numb. xi. 7). Some have thought the resemblance to lie not merely in the colour, but also in the indented or cut appearance, of the seed: the root of Gad signifies to cut or make an incision. The fruit (or seeds) is of the size of a pepper-corn, containing an oil which has an aromatic flavour, for which it is highly prized in the East, and used as an ingredient in currypowder. Coriander is common in Egypt and the south of Europe, as well as in our own country. In Essex it is grown for druggists and distillers. Its leaves are used as condiments in soups, &c.

CORINTH (G.), a celebrated city, which lay on the isthmus that joins the main land of Greece with the Morea; and, from its position between the Saronicus Sinus and Alcyonium Mare, was appropriately termed bimaris, or 'between the two seas.' Corinth was a city in the district Corinthia, which united Megaris with Argolis. The southern part of the district consists of a chain of hills with bare high tops, deep valleys, and narrow clefts; which sinks gradually down towards a plain, in which Corinth stands, throwing out a lofty insulated hill, that sustains the citadel or acropolis of the place. From the plain the land rises again northwards, joining a range of hills which run up into Megaris. The character of the district was therefore various. Equally did its parts differ in regard to fruitfulness. The eminences were barren; the vales, the lowlands, especially the seacoast, stretching from Corinth to Sicyon, along the Sinus Corinthiacus, were enriched and adorned with the most luxuriant vegetation, which called forth from the ancients expressions of wonder and delight. And still, according to travellers, these parts produce great abandance, without the bestowal of much human labour, so rich is the soil, so genial the climate.