case, but it is scarcely an argument in favour of retaining a rule which, as can be proved, is actually inaccurate in its operation.

The time between any two will be found by subtracting the smaller time from the greater.

The measurement most generally urged as the best to replace the Thames rule is that of displacement; but it cannot be contended that displacement of itself would afford any means of calculating the relative capabilities of different yachts. This was clearly shown in the last chapter, and the inference is that, if displacement were made the standard of value for competitive sailing, yachts would be built shallow and broad, in order that a great sail area might be carried upon a small displacement. It has been suggested that this tendency of the rule could be checked by making the displacement bear a certain minimum proportion to the length, breadth, and depth, or, in other words, that there should be a limit to the coefficient of fineness; but any limitation in this way, if otherwise unobjectionable, would not realise the desired object, as the proportion of displacement to the length, breadth, and depth would, under any circumstances, be pretty much the same in either a deep or shallow yacht.

The broad and shallow yacht would carry the largest amount of

* Has exceptionally small head sails. + The Alert is a small centre-board yacht.

canvas, and so would have the greatest speed. As speed is the desideratum in racing yachts, it is right that a designer should be left entirely uncontrolled in developing that quality for a certain value— say the displacement. This appears to be reasonable enough, and would be entirely unobjectionable if no other qualities were sought in a yacht than those of mere speed. But, as yacht racing is not so much the aim of yachtsmen as cruising, they very properly look with great suspicion upon any innovation that would be likely to introduce a yacht deficient in the sterling qualities that the present type are known to have.

To forcibly illustrate the nature of the deficiencies that might be expected in yachts if displacement became the standard of value for yacht racing, we can take the case of the Seabelle and Columbia. The internal (available) capacity of the two yachts is about equal, but the expense of working the Columbia would be at least 50 per cent. greater than the expense of working the Seabelle. A yacht like the Columbia would be an indifferent sea boat, and her great spar and sail area, that would be of such importance for smooth-water sailing, would be only a dangerous incumbrance in a sea;* further, there is the positive danger that such a yacht might capsize if unskilfully handled. These deficiencies are quite sufficient to horrify any English yachtsman; and supposing that displacement became the basis for time allowance in competitive sailing, the only advantage of a Columbia would be that she would win prizes if matched against yachts of the Seabelle type. Thus, whilst we are fully alive to the objections to the Y.R.A. rule, we are entirely opposed to the proposal, most generally advocated, to change it for that of displacement for the reason that, whilst the Y.R.A. rule places some check upon the full development of speed, it induces good sea-going qualities; whereas a measurement by displacement, whilst admitting unrestricted development of speed, would induce very bad sea-going qualities.

Whilst rejecting displacement if used by itself as a standard of

* On Oct. 18, 1871, the English yacht Livonia and American yacht Columbia sailed a match in New York Bay. They started in a fine whole sail breeze, which during the match much increased. The Columbia found it prudent to take in topsail and stow her foresail. The Livonia started nothing but her balloon maintopsail. In America a measurement of displacement and other causes (mostly of a local character, limiting draught of water) have induced a beamy, shallow type of vessel, undeniably fast and weatherly in moderate winds, but generally ill-adapted for such cruising as English yachts undertake. That the shortcomings of the English yachts Cambria and Livonia, in their contests for the American Cup, were to some extent attributable to their deficient sail areas compared with those of their antagonists is certain. In the club races no booming out or square sails were allowed, and the Cambria and Livonia were invariably beaten by the centre-board yachts before the wind; in the "scrub races (sweepstakes got up independently of the club) booming out and any description of sail were allowed; the American yachts had none but their fore and aft sails to boom out, and the Cambria had square sails; the result was that she could more than hold her own "down wind" when in these scrub races.

competitive sailing, we are of opinion that it could be satisfactorily used in connection with the manner it enters into the calculation of statical stability. A rule based upon the statical stability of yachts would be unerring in its application, and if any number of competitors had equal stability success would be dependent upon form, apart from influences which may be termed accidental; but as exact calculations of stability involve such immense labour, we see no prospect of such a scientific test ever being applied to match sailing.

CHAPTER VII.

BALLAST.

THE displacement of a vessel is a quantity which enters very largely into any consideration of her stability, as was abundantly shown in a former chapter, and in no way does the knowledge of a yacht's displacement more largely assist the naval architect in his labours than in the matter of ballast. Most English yachts are built of pretty much the same scantling, and have similar internal fittings and spars; yet the weight, exclusive of ballast, of any two yachts of equal length and breadth may vary considerably, as will be gleaned from the following table, abstracted from "Yacht Designing":

It is very evident that, the greater quantity of ballast a vessel has in proportion to her displacement, the lower ought to be her centre of

gravity, and, as a sequence, the greater ought to be her stability. A yacht builder, therefore, even if he disregards the simple calculation of the displacement of a vessel he is commissioned to construct, will know that, so far as sail-carrying power is concerned, an advantage must accrue from making the fabric of the hull as light as possible, consistent with security, if the vessel be intended for racing.

But, as already pointed out, it must not be concluded that of two vessels of equal length, breadth, and draught of water, and equal scantling so far as sizes of timbers, beams, and planking go, the weight of the hull need be the same. The probability is that the vessel of the larger displacement will carry the greater proportionate weight of ballast, as is very pointedly exemplified in the case of the Sappho and Guinevere. Now the Sappho is a much lighter-built boat than Guinevere; yet, in proportion to displacement, it will be seen that she carries a smaller quantity of ballast. The reason of this is dependent upon the different forms taken by the vertical sections in the two vessels. The Guinevere's midship section is of the peg-top form, and the greatest girth of the midship frame, from the load line to the keel, is 16ft.; the Sappho has a section very flat from the bilge to the garboard, and then very curved. The consequence is that the girth or length of the frame, from the load line to the keel, is nearly 20ft.; and there will be a proportionate excess of length in nearly every frame; and as a consequence, an excess of plank as well. For this reason, unless vessels of similar linear dimensions be also of similar form, they need not have the same ratio of ballast to displacement. It will be noticed in the table that as the tonnage size of the yachts decreases the ratio of ballast to displacement increases; the cause of this is that depth in a small yacht is relatively greater than in a large one-or, in other words, the depth is not made to decrease in proportion to the decrease in the other two dimensions of length and breadth.*

A very great change has been wrought in the manner of ballasting yachts during the last quarter of a century, and we cannot help declaring that generally a better type of vessel for speed and weatherliness has been built since ballasting has received greater attention. Scrap iron, fire bars, and even stone, were the common form of ballast in the first days of the Squadron, with a few shot bags to trim to windward in the event of match sailing. We all know that, as the pastime of yachting developed, a taste for yacht racing was very rapidly disseminated, and ballast shifting came to be regarded as part of the science of the sport; and thus success, in fair sailing breezes, frequently rewarded the man who had the greatest weight of shot bags, and the greatest number of men

* See page 52.