made from American elm or oak, in half-round or pear-shaped section, and extend in one piece for the full length of the boat, being secured to alternate timbers with copper nails clenched

over rooves.

The feature of these rubbers is not only to form a protection to the gunwale, but an excellent longitudinal stiffener is provided when associated with the thwart knee securities.

It is considered that it would be an advantage to the boat to increase the scantlings of the binding strake, owing to the number of heavy fastenings which pass through it when securing the life-line rings and rubbers.

Where boats are not fitted with a rope fender or outside cork buoyancy, the lower edges of the planks of clinker-built boats, from the binding strake down to the turn of the bilge (usually about the fifth plank below), are fitted with tapered filling pieces, for a distance amidships, equal to one-half the length of the boat. Vertical rubbing pieces may be fitted if desired, but the usual practice is to fit the horizontal strips and secured to the timbers.

The purpose of these filling pieces is to protect the plank edges and landings from damage, should the boat come into contact with the ship's side when being lowered overboard.

Care should be exercised in fitting rubbing strips to give them a neat rounded section in order to preserve a finished appearance on the plank edges.

Bilge rails are not required to be fitted by the standard regulations issued by the Board of Trade, but they provide an excellent handhold for persons struggling in the water, and should the lifeboat be capsized, they become a ready means of assistance. The details of fitting the rail below the turn of the bilge is shown in Figs. 94 B and C.

The position of the rail at the bilge should be such as not to foul the ship's side when the boat is lowered.

It is secured to the planking and alternate timbers by stout screws, care being exercised to prevent the fastenings from piercing the full thickness of timber.

The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Co., Ltd., in their double-skin lifeboats, have an upper hand-rail, or jackstay, fitted at the gunwale. The arrangement is illustrated in Figs. 79 c and 94 A. The life-lines are secured to the gunwale rail. The relative positions, of the bilge rail, life-lines, and gunwale rail, provide every facility for persons obtaining access into the boat from the water. This has been a standard practice with Messrs.

Caird and Co. for many years, and is a considerable improvement on the arrangements usually fitted in ships' boats.

An efficient form of protection to the transom and plank endings in a square stern" boat is given by the fitting of

66

quarter badges, illustrated at Fig. 78. They are made of hardwood and secured to the fashion-piece, gunwale, planking, and rubber.

The necessity for the provision of rope fenders in all lifeboats

is obvious to persons who have had any practical experience in the operation of launching boats under difficult circumstances.

FIG. 95.-Coir rope fender fitted to modified Class IIA life boat.

Hand fenders are considered very objectionable, and in all probability would be found missing when required.

6-3 STRAND
ROPE FENDER

FIG. 96.-Rope fender to motor boat.

A 7-in. rope fender would certainly limit the risk of damage to the hull of a boat if efficiently secured immediately under the rubber.

These fenders should be yielding and resilient, and if coir is used it should consist of long strands as a rule, unlaid, but marled to the neces sary diameter, and in no case should the fender be less than 4 in.

Coir rope is made from the fibres of the

cocoanut tree, is much lighter than the ordinary hemp rope,

about equal in strength.

and

Fig. 95 shows the method of fitting coir rope fenders to the modified Class IIA lifeboats.

Another method sometimes adopted as a means of protecting motor boats is illustrated by Fig. 96, and consists of a number of strands of rope made up to the required diameter, secured to the timbers by strong wire.

Pudding fenders are made up from old rope, unlaid and served with spunyarn to about 6 in. in diameter, covered with canvas and painted, or with rope matting. Fig. 97 illustrates the method of securing these fenders. The puddings and the lifelines are attached to a coir rope from 4 to 7 in. The measurement of the rope is taken around its circumference.

It is essential that the loops of the life-lines should be kept parallel to the L.W.L.

There is a diversity of opinion as to the relative value of the

pudding fender as compared with the ordinary coir rope. When the boat comes into violent contact with the ship's side the stress is partially taken by the pudding fender, but transmitted to one particular portion of the gunwale combination, whereas it is considered that with a large continuous rope fender, the stresses would be distributed over a wider area and local damage would be avoided.

The writer's experience is that the puddings very quickly get damaged and need constant attention and repairs.

When lifeboats are lifted at the ends by the Welin quadrant type of davit bracket, also the Martin or McEachnie patterns, it is necessary to substitute two thicknesses of reinforced rope, in lieu of the pudding fenders at the stem and sternpost, to allow for sufficient clearance at the davit frame.

N

The Board of Trade have recently issued a circular, No. 1606, recommending that where dangerous fittings are already fitted on existing ships below the boat positions, action must be taken to modify these projections, or fit special fore and aft coir fenders not less than 4 in. in diameter, and secured under the rubbers. of the boats. In addition, three vertical rubbers are to be fitted amidships made up of hemp rope, tapering from 3 to 12 in. in circumference, the thickest portion of the rubber protecting the bilge of the boat adjacent to the ship's side. These midship rubbers are to be secured from gunwale to gunwale.

Ample protection is thus provided when the boat is being lowered from a vessel having an adverse list, and to meet the contingency when it is thrown against the ship's side by a heavy sea when afloat.

Tank Cleading. The front casing which encloses the buoyancy air-tanks is worked in short gates between the thwarts, as illus

trated in Fig. 98, and made up of narrow "veed" pine of in. to in. thick. Good stout clamps are fitted to the portable portions of the casing to enable the tanks to be periodically inspected without damaging the cleading.

Solid supports at least in. in thickness are fitted under the thwarts, and secured in place in such a manner as to be of some substantial help to relieve the weight on the thwart.

The cleading is held in position by an inner and an outer strip of wood running fore and aft at its lower edge. Some firms utilise the bilge stringer for this purpose. Consequently, the stringer is fitted in such a position as to give the minimum amount of support to the bilge. A portable securing strip, made of teak or other suitable hard wood, and rounded at