Reb.

3. Since this idea of retribution prevails in the prophets throughout, their predictions are in part to be regarded as HOPES and WISHES, menaces and expressions of anxiety; and therefore the fundamental rule of giving them an historical explanation, is to seek the occasion of an oracle in history, rather than its fulfilment. Particular caution is necessary in respect to predictions against foreign nations.

4. These prophecies are almost always indefinite and fluctuating. The later referred to the oracles of earlier prophets; and thus, for example, the Messianic idea gradually received its form, and became permanent.“ The definite predictions of Ezekiel (xii. xxiv. 25, 26, xxxiii. 21, 22) seem not to have been fulfilled. The same must be said of those of Jeremiah, (xxii. 18, 19, xxxvi. 30,) as may be seen by comparing 2 Kings xxiv. 6, 2 Ch. xxxvi. 6, for the authority of Josephus (x. 6,3) can scarcely be decisive in this case. The following, also, are not fulfilled: Amos vii. 11; Hosea's curse of the people, (ix. 3, and xi. 5;) Isaiah's oracle, (xxii. and xxix. ;) his curse pronounced upon Moab, (xvi. 14,) and his prophecy of the destruction of Tyre, (xxiii.)-though Hengstenberg is of the contrary opinion; - the prophecy of Obadiah Jeremiah's curse of Ægypt and Edom, (xliii. 8, xlix. 7, sqq.;) Ezekiel's prophecies against Mount Seir, (xxxv.,) against Egypt, (xxix.,) and against Gog and Magog, (xxxviii.—xxxix.)

a

b

The following are not completely fulfilled: Isa. vii.

See Eichhorn, §515, p. 27. Credner (1. c. p. 63, sqq., and 71, sqq.) perhaps carries this reference of the later to the earlier prophets too far. De Wette, Bib. Dogmatik, § 116.

See Hengstenberg, De Rel. Tyr.; 1832. [But see Heeren, Researches into the Intercourse, Policy, Trade, &c., Eng. translation; Oxford, 1833, vol. ii. p. 11, note 2. Knobel, vol. i. p. 300, sq.]

313

17, sqq.; his oracle against Damascus and Samaria, (viii. 4;) that against Babylon, (xiv. 23;) against Damascus, (xvii. 1-3;) and that against Idumea, (xxxiv. 9.)

There are also predictions in the historical books which were either put into a more definite form, or were forged, after the event. But it is entirely in opposition to the spirit of the Hebrew prophets to suppose these oracles were only veiled and obscure pictures of the historical present and of the past."

§ 205.

THE DISCOURSE AND STYLE OF THE PROPHETS.

The prophets expressed themselves spontaneously and directly with the living voice. They sometimes appeared and spoke in public places, and sometimes at home addressed a circle of men that sought advice or edification. This latter appears from 2 Kings iv. 22, 23, whence it appears men were accustomed to seek the prophets, chiefly on the Sabbath, and days of the new moon,' (vi. 32, Isa. xxxviij. 5, 21, Jer. xxi. 1, Ezek. viii. I 1, xiv. 1, xx. 1.) When they spoke in public, their speeches were, probably, for the most part, artless outbreaks of their zeal and inspiration, short addresses and appeals, which, perhaps, were followed by replies, or a disputation. When they spoke in private, their dis

Eichhorn, (Heb. Proph. on Isa. xxix. and elsewhere) takes this false view. See Gesenius, Com. ad. Jes. vol. i. p. 823. See, also, on this entire subject, Griesinger, Prufung d. Jem. Begriffs von der übernaturlich, ursprung d. proph. Weissag.; 1818. [But the author of the book of Daniel, at least, seems to have done this continually. See below, § 254–257.] Perhaps this is the first trace of the synagogue service.

* 1 Kings xxii. 6, sqq., 14, sqq., Isa. vii., Am. vii. 10, sqq., Jer. xxviii.

courses may have been more connected, and have entered more into details. Sometimes they spoke after making preparation, and sometimes unpremeditatedly."

Sometimes they confirmed their assertions, particularly such as related to the future, by signs,' some of which are the appointed tests of a prophet's truth, as in Deut. xiii. 2, sq. Such is the case in 1 Sam. ii. 34, and in Isa. vii. 10, sqq. Sometimes these signs consist in the extraordinary deeds which they performed, (Ex. iv. 1, sqq.,) and which, it is probable, have, for the most part, been enlarged, and misrepresented in the legendary

accounts.

To bring their thoughts and instructions before the senses of the people, they made use of symbolical actions, and of a certain sort of signs. Thus Zedekiah made horns of iron, and thrust with them, to show that the nation was in like manner to thrust down the Syrians, (1 Kings xxii. 11;) Isaiah walks naked and barefoot for three years, to show that the king of Assyria should lead away the Ægyptians and Ethiopians naked and barefoot, (Is. xx.) So in viii. 1-4, and 18, he says, “Behold, I and the children whom the Lord hath given me are for signs and for wonders." Ezekiel (iv. 1, sqq.) makes a drawing of Jerusalem on a slate, and represents himself as lying beside it four hundred and thirty days, to show the city was to endure a long siege. Again: (xii. 1, sqq.) he carries away his possessions, through an opening he has digged in the wall, in the twilight, and bears them on his shoulders, to show the nation that they likewise shall remove and go into captivity.

In earlier times, perhaps they made use of music, for

a

Knobel, vol. i. p. 418.

. מוֹפְתִים, אותות •

Elisha plays on an instrument in presence of the kings of Judah and Israel, before he prophesied, (2 Kings iii. 15;) the prophets, mentioned in 1 Sam. x. 5, were preceded by a band of music, and David played before Saul, to drive away the evil spirit from him, (xix. 8, sqq.) But it is certainly incorrect to consider the prophets as singers and improvisators."

If they subsequently wrote down their speeches, or if they preferred to publish their opinions by writing them, they made use of a more artificial, rounded, and even poetic style, and symbolic actions were then added to the true or fictitious narrative. The following belong to the latter class, namely, the story of Jeremiah burying his girdle, (xiii. 1–7 ;) of Ezekiel lying four hundred and thirty days before a slate, (iv. 1, sqq. ;) of his typical removal from Jerusalem, (xii. 1, sqq.;) of Hosea taking an unchaste wife, (i. 2-9, iii. 1-5,) and elsewhere. Many are uncertain, like the account of Isaiah walking barefoot and naked."

These symbolic actions, together with the symbolic revelations and visions, make up the prophetic symbolism,

a

[The use of music, to excite the soothsayers, was not unknown to the heathen. Jumblichus (De Mysteriis, iii. 9) says, "Some of the transported, having cymbals or drums, or some other kind of music, are filled with the Spirit," &c. So Cicero, (Div. i. 50,) " And so they whose minds, scorning their bodies, fly and rush abroad, when inflamed and incited by some ardor, behold these things which they predict. Such minds, which inhere not in their bodies, are inflamed by various causes. Some are incited by a certain modulation of voices, and Phrygian songs," &c. &c.

Spinoza (Tract. theol.-polit. p. 19) thinks Elisha, in the above instance, used a musical instrument to moderate his anger; but the supposition seems gratuitous.]

See, on these symbolic actions, Stäudlin, N. Beiträge zur Erläut. d. Bibl. Propheten, p. 123, sqq., and Eichhorn, Einl. § 556, and 603. [See also Knobel, Prophetismus, § 38. He thinks the following may have been per

which assumes different forms, to suit the spirit of the times. Without wishing to deny that there was a direct and immediate revelation, — that is, an actual divine excitement, and, in some cases, an actual ecstasy or trance,-I only maintain that it was indirect and mediate also, and that there was something arbitrary in the style of their discourse. This appears, 1. From the circumstance of their speeches being connected with symbols, which, it is obvious, were arbitrary," and at the same time with those symbolic actions. 2. From the variations of taste in respect to this revelation; thus Isaiah (vi.) receives inspiration from seeing Jehovah, sitting on a lofty throne, with a train that fills the temple, and surrounded by the seraphim. Jeremiah (i.) says, simply, "The word of Jehovah came to me;" and Ezekiel sees the heavens. opened, and has visions of God, (i.,) which are very common in the later prophets. 3. From the well-known analogy with other symbols, in Ps. xviii. 4, and 1 Kings xviii. 25. And, 4. From the clear spirit of Hebrew prophecy, which did not favor the state of ecstasy,

formed, though we are not expressly told that such was the case, viz., that of Zedekiah, mentioned above, (1 Kings xxii. 11;) of Isaiah going naked, though not during the whole period of three years; of Jeremiah breaking an earthen vessel, (xix. 1, sqq., v. 14,) and his putting on a yoke, (xxvii. 1,) — it is not said he wore it; those mentioned in Ezek. xxxvii. 15, sqq., and Jer. xliii. 8. Common actions, performed without any unusual design, he thinks were sometimes made, afterwards, to assume a symbolical character; e. g. Jeremiah's purchase of his deceased kinsman's estate, (xxxii. 5.)

The following, he thinks, cannot have been performed, viz., that of Ahijah stripping Jeroboam of his new garment, and rending it into twelve pieces, (1 Kings xi. 29;) that of Hosea, mentioned above, which is peculiarly inconsistent with a character so severely moral as that prophet; that of Jeremiah, (xiii. 1—7,) and Ezekiel, (xii. 1, sqq., iv. v. and xxiv. 3, sqq.)]

a Am. vii. 1–9, viii. 1, 2, Jer. i. 11-14, Zach. i. 7, sqq., 18, sqq., ii. iii., 1 Kings xxii. 19, sqq.