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But it is certain they come from the most flourishing period of Hebrew literature. A large share in the composition of the Proverbs may therefore be reasonably allotted to Solomon, especially in the first part. (i.xxii. 16.)

The authors of the first two of the latter appendices are mentioned-Agur, and the mother of King Lemuel; but their age is unknown to us."

CHAPTER V.

ECCLESIASTES, OR THE PREACHER.*

§ 282.

STYLE AND SPIRIT OF THE BOOK.

In all respects, this book belongs to the gnomological and didactic compositions of the Hebrews. It not only contains, in some parts, actual proverbs, while a connected and prosaic style prevails from beginning to end, but

maxims relative to correcting a son, and the proverb about a fair woman without discretion, (xi. 22, sq.,) and some others, have been added.

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See the opinions about Agur and King Lemuel, in Gesenius's Lexicon, Bertholdt, p. 2193, sq., and Rosenmüller, 1. c. [Michaelis "explains away Agur, and changes the pointing in xxx. 1, and reads

, i. e. collect my words, my son; receive the proverb.]

Hieronym. Comm. in Ecclesiast., Opp. iii. Vallars. Merceri Comm. in Eccles., in his Comm. on Job. Mart. Geieri Comm. in Koheleth; Lips. 1668.

J. J. Rambach, Annotatt. in Eccles. in J. H. Michaelis, Uberr. annotatt. in Hagiographa.

Ecclesiast. philol. et crit. illustratus a Van der Palm; Lug. Bat. 1784. Der Pred. Sal. mit e. Erkl. nach dem Wortverstande, vom Verf. des

in its entire character and spirit it seems to be the result of the same practical wisdom of the Hebrews, seen in another point of view. The doctrine of retribution on earth, elevated by no hope of a future state, which constitutes the religious principle of the book, had to contend with powerful doubts, which the sad experience of life suggested, and which show themselves, here and there, perhaps in Proverbs, (xxiv. 19,) but more clearly in the Psalms, (xxxvii. and lxxiii.,) as the times became more disastrous and hopeless. As Faith and Inspiration became more cool, so these doubts became more powerful, and at last took the form of a practical system, inclined to skepticism, fatalism, and Epicureanism. To this the author of the book professes to adhere."

Bergst thinks he finds a foreign influence in the book."

Phädon. Aus dem Hebr. übers. vom Uebers. der Mischnah (Rabe); Ansb. 1771, 4to.

G. Zirkel, Unterss. üb. d. Pred. n. krit. u. phil. Bemerkk.; Würzb. 1792. His Uebers; ibid.

G. Ph. Chr. Kaiser, Koheleth das Collectivum der davidischen Könige zu Azzes, p. 87. Jerusalem; Erl. 1823, 8vo. Knobel, Com. üb. Kohel; 1836. Ewald, 1. c.

Ueberss. und Erkll. von Kleuker, 1777; Struensee, 1780; Döderlein, 2 A. 1791; G. L. Spohn, 1785; Friedländer, 1788; Ch. A. Bode, 1788; J. E. Chr. Schmidt, 1794; Nachtigall, 1798; B. H. Bergst, 1799; Umbreit, 1818; Köster, (n. Hiob,) 1831.

[Des Vœur, A Philosophical and Critical Essay on Ecclesiastes, &c.; Lond. 1762, 4to. Greenaway, Ecclesiastes translated, with a Paraphrase and Notes; 1781, 8vo. Hodgson, A New Translation; 1791, 4to. An Exposition of the Book of Eccl. by Bishop Reynolds; 1811, 8vo. Wardlaw's Lectures on Eccl.; 1821, 2 vols. 8vo. Holden, Attempt to illustrate Eccl.; 1822, 8vo. The Philosophy of Ecclesiastes, by Dr. I. Nordheimer, in the Biblical Repository for 1838, vol. xii. p. 197, sqq.]

a

See De Wette, Characteristik der Hebraismus, in Daub und Creutzer, Studien, vol. iii. pt. ii. p. 287, sqq.

In Eichhorn, Allg. Bib. vol. x. p. 963, sqq. [He discovers a Grecian influence in the book, and calls its author an "Oriental sophist." Luther, in his Table-Talk, says the author of Ecclesiastes rides without boots or spurs, and only in his stockings.]

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Here the prosaic style is as natural as in the later prophets; but Köster thinks he has discovered a regular rhythmical strophe in it.

§ 283.

TITLE AND CONTENTS.

The meaning of the word, the Hebrew title of the book, has long been contested; but the most satisfactory explanation of it is still ἐκκλησιαστής, concionator, that is, speaker in the assembly, (.) This agrees

with xii. 9."

At any rate, if the text is correct, the word is a title of King Solomon. Indeed, it is probable that the name

a

[The word, though masculine in sense, has the feminine form; but Jahn (p. 828) shows that in Arabic many appellatives were used with a ♬ at the end, which corresponds with the Hebrew, and were then used indifferently in a masculine or feminine sense. Even in the Hebrew, names of men sometimes occur in a feminine form; e. g. 7, Ezra ii. 55, and ♫, verse 57. Some suppose the word means Collector of sentences, or proverbs; others, Old man, Life-weary, Penitent, a man gathered to his fathers, as if it were. Comp., adduced by Eichhorn, Gesenius, and Knobel, to which Ewald and Köster add . See Bertholdt, p. 2202. Umbreit, Coheleth Scepticus de summo Bono, p. 76; 1820. Dindorf, Quomodo nomen Koheleth Salomoni tribuatur; 1791, 4to. Carpzov, p. 200, sqq.

b [Bertholdt (p. 2208) conjectures that only the first two words of the inscription, viz. 7, are genuine, and the rest of the inscription, as well as the word, every time it subsequently recurs, is interpolated. See Gesenius, sub voce.] Umbreit, p. 95, 1. c.

[Dr. Peters, Crit. Diss. on Book of Job, (2d ed. Lond. 1757,) says, “The book is a sermon, preached by Solomon, but long after his death. I mean that it is composed out of Solomon's remains...... by those that were appointed [by law ?] to revise and publish them; amongst whom, Isaiah...... hath left us a little mark of his own hand-writing, at the end of the book, for those who are capable judges of it....... The sermon ends with a repetition of the text, 'Vanity of vanities,'" &c. (xii. 8.)]

Solomon itself is but a title or surname, as well as Jedidiah, in 2 Sam. xii. 25. Symbolical and mythical names were not uncommon among the Hebrews, as other passages can prove."

[By a fiction, Solomon is introduced here as speaking. Augusti maintains that he appears in the character of a man deceased, or a ghost. But there is no clear intimation of this in the book, and the whole agrees very well together, if we suppose that the author wished to make him appear to speak at the end of his life, but did not adhere rigidly to this plan in his composition.]

The doctrine of the uselessness and nothingness of all things, and the reality of enjoyment alone, would make a deeper impression from the mouth of this wise king, who was surfeited with enjoyment and success, than from any other. Such is the doctrine of wisdom which this later teacher chiefly propounds, in the name of Solomon, and which, with much regularity, he has uttered from the beginning of the book. Since, in general, he lays down the results of his reflection in this book, and from them proceeds to the more thorough treatment of his principal theme, he introduces likewise many other observations and rules of life, which, however, are almost always tinged with skepticism. Though they sometimes contradict the doubts he has elsewhere expressed, (viii. 12, 13, xii. 14,) this only shows the want of clearness and certainty in his reflections. Thus, beneath the interrupted and broken unity of the book, there appears a deeper unity."

a Isa. xxix. 1, Jer. xxv. 26, Ezek. xxiii. 4. Perhaps Agur (Prov. xxx. 1) is a name of Solomon.

The following is a sketch of the contents. The main point of the book is this: All is vain and fruitless. The arguments in support of it are, 1. The aimless course of things. (i. 4—11.)

Since the style of the book, as well as its contents, lies clearly obvious to the eye, it is wonderful that hitherto the interpreters have not agreed respecting it."

2. The vanity of attempts to gain wisdom. (i. 12—18.)

3. The vanity of earthly enjoyment, and all attempts to reach it, in comparison with wisdom, although the gratification of desire has still the highest value. (ii.)

4. The transitoriness and change of all things, for which reason gratification of desire is again commended, as the most valuable. (iii. 1—15.)

5. The dominion of injustice and death among men, for which cause death is more to be desired than life, though life is still to be enjoyed cheerfully. (iii. 16—iv. 3.)

6. The vain troubles and strivings of men. (iv. 4—12.)

7. Vanity of royal honors. (iv. 13-16.) Separate maxims respecting idolatry and injustice. (iv. 17-v. 8.)

8. Vanity of the struggle after wealth and honor. Commendation of an enjoyment of life. (v. 9-vi. 9.) Subjection to destiny by the vanity of all things. (vi. 10—12.) Single maxims, mostly of a skeptical character. (vii. 1 -viii. 13.)

9. Fruitless striving after wisdom. (vii. 23, 24.)

10. Death is unavoidable. (viii. 8.)

11. Success of the wicked. Adversity of the pious. The government of the world incomprehensible. (viii. 14-ix. 6.) Commendation of pleasure. (ix. 7—10.) The superiority of wisdom, which often is of no avail. (ix. 11— x. 1.) Single maxims, of a skeptical nature. (x. 2-xi. 6.) An exhortation to enjoy life, before old age approaches. (xi. 7-xii. 8.) Conclusion and summary of the book, with an account of Koheleth himself. (xii. 9—14.)

• The following writers think it is written in the form of a dialogue : Herder, Briefe, vol. i. p. 180, sq. Clericus, Sentimens de quelques Theol. de Holland, p. 272. The third edition of Eichhorn, vol. iii. p. 650, sqq. Bergst, in Eichhorn's Allg. Bib. vol. x. p. 963, sqq. Rhode, De Vet. Poet. Sap. gnom. p. 213, sqq. Kelle, Die Heil. Schriften in ihrer Urgestalt. vol. 1. p. 279. And on the other side, Döderlein, Pref. to his translation, p. x. sqq., and Rosenmüller, Prolegg. p. 13. See the similar views of Paulus, in his new version of the book in his Repert. vol. i. p. 201. Nachtigall, Kohel. p. 36, sqq. He finds no plan in it. J. E. Chr. Schmidt found in this book a work not fully completed and ready for the people. Others have sought to prove there were in it an orderly plan and division. Rosenmüller and J. D. Michaelis think it is divided into two parts-i. 1—iv. 16, and iv. 17—xii. 8. Van der Palm divides it thus: i.—vi. vii.—xii. The following is Köster's arrangement: i. 2-11, the introduction; i. 11-iii. 22, the first chapter, nothing permanent, or the absolute good; iv.-vi., the second chapter, the relative good; vii. 1-ix. 16, the third chapter, of true wisdom; ix. 17—xii. 8,

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