of the shell, sometimes next the involuted spire. 3, That the animal does not occupy the posterior part of the shell. 4, That the form of the animal and of its parts offers no concordance or analogy with the shell. 5, That the shell is too opake to have permitted the influence of light in the development of the coloured pigment in the mantle of the cephalopod of the argonaut. 6, That it is very far from being true that the argonaut-shell possesses the flexibility and elasticity requisite to harmonise with the locomotive and respiratory movements of the animal. 7, That the animal suffers no appearance of inconvenience when deprived of its shell. 8, That a cephalopod has been discovered in the Sicilian seas like that which inhabits the argonaut, but without a shell. These data are designated by Professor Owen, to whose observations we shall presently advert, as false facts, with the exception of the third, which is only partially false, being true when stated with reference to the more mature animal only. The other arguments of M. de Blainville are noticed by Professor Owen as founded on undoubted or admissible facts; but the Professor denies the conclusion drawn by M. de Blainville.

M. Sander Rang in consequence of the appearance of M. de Blainville's memoir or letter, published in Guerin's Magasin de Zoologie a very interesting paper under the title of Documents pour servir à l'Histoire Naturelle des Cephalopods Cryptodibranches.' In this memoir M. Rang's observations are confirmatory, -1, of Madame Power's statement that the siphon is applied to the part of the shell opposite the involuted spire; 2, of the accuracy of her description of the relative position of the so-called sails of the argonaut with reference to the shell; 3, of her discovery of the faculty possessed by the animal of repairing the shell, and many other points.

No one will refuse to M. Rang the acknowledgment that he is not only a very accurate observer, but that he is well versed in the natural history and anatomy of the mollusca generally; so that here at least no doubt can be thrown on the observations.

M. Rang however appears to have been staggered by the pertinacity of M. de Blainville; for after all, he sums up by declaring himself to be in the most complete state of uncertainty.'

In February, 1839, a highly interesting and valuable series of specimens of the Paper Nautilus (Argonauta Argo) consisting of the animals and their shells of various sizes, of ova in various stages of development, and of fractured shells in different stages of reparation, were exhibited to the Zoological Society of London, and commented on by Professor Owen, to whom they had been transmitted for that purpose by Madame Power, who had formed the collection in Sicily, in 1838. In the course of his comments the Professor went at large into the subject, and in addition to the observations above alluded to with regard to the alleged false facts and admissible facts whereon M. de Blainville had founded his reasoning, combated at great length, and, in our opinion, with signal success, the arguments of those who adhered to what may be termed the parasitic opinion; and recapitulated as follows the evidence which, independently of any preconceived theory or statement, could be deduced from the specimens then on the table.

1, The cephalopod of the argonaut constantly maintains the same relative position in its shell.

2, The young cephalopod manifests the same concordance between the form of its body and that of the shell, and the same perfect adaptation of the one to the other as do the young of other testaceous mollusks.

3, The young cephalopod entirely fills the cavity of its shell; the fundus of the sac begins to be withdrawn from the apex of the shell only when the ovarium begins to enlarge under the sexual stimulus.

4, The shell of the Argonaut corresponds in size with that of its inhabitant, whatever be the differences of the latter in that respect. (The observations of Poli, of Prevost, of King, and of Owen, are to the same effect.)

5, The shell of the Argonaut possesses all the requisite flexibility and elasticity which the mechanism of respiration and locomotion in the inhabitant requires; it is also permeable to light.

6, The cephalopod inhabiting the Argonaut repairs the fractures of its shell with a material having the same chemical composition as the original shell, and differing in mechanical properties only in being a little more opake.

7, The repairing material is laid on from without the

shell, as it should be according to the theory of the function of the membranous arms as calcifying organs. 8, When the embryo of the Argonaut has reached an advanced stage of development in ovo, neither the membranous arms nor shell are developed.

9, The shell of the Argonaut does not present any defined nucleus.

Professor Owen concluded a most elaborate commentary by stating that he regarded the facts already ascertained to be decisive in proof that the cephalopod was the true fabricator of the shell; and thus, in our opinion, is set at restprincipally by the experiments of Madame Power-a question which had divided the opinions of zoologists from the time of Aristotle, who left the subject with the following acknowledgment: But as touching the generation and growth of the shell, nothing is as yet exactly determined."*

M. Rang's account of the locomotion of Argonauta Argo is most interesting. When the animal was at rest and contracted within its shell, it exhibited the appearance figured below.

Argonauta Argo contracted within its shell, and the membrane of the sailarms partially covering it. The eggs were never seen by Mr. Raug in the

place where they are represented, but much more within the opening. (Rang.)

'To return to the description of our poulp,' says M. Rang, 'which we left contracted within the argonaut-shell, and watching, with an attentive eye, what took place around it, we saw it extending itself from out its shell, and protruding six of its arms; then it threw itself into violent motion, and travelled over the basin in all directions, often dashing itself against the sides. In these different movements the body leant a little towards the anterior part of the shell; and the long slender arms, very much extended and collected into a close bundle, were carried before it, as well as the tube, which showed itself open and protruded. The locomotion was effected in the ordinary manner of poulps, the movement being backwards by means of the contraction of the sac and the expulsion of water through the siphon. The disposition of the animal and shell is the most favourable for accelerating the motion of the creature. The lightness of the shell,-its narrow and keeled form,its width, which is smallest at the part presented first for cleaving the water-the membrane smoothing over all inequalities of the shell-the bundle of arms extending behind so as to offer the least possible resistance, the two arms stretched like a bridge over the cavity where the eggs are, as if to throw off the water from that cavity;-all these adaptations concur to facilitate the gliding of the animal through the medium in which it is to move.'

M. Rang thought that he perceived in the movements of the animal, when in open water, that it had its back upper most, and consequently the tube below; but he did not constantly see it so: he observed it however with more certainty in specimens of poulps whose arms had been deprived of their membranes.

The animal which they had been watching, as above described, fatigued by its efforts in a confined space, and perhaps injured by the shocks which it had sustained in coming in contact with the side of the basin, allowed itself to sink to the bottom, and half contracted itself in order to take repose; soon after which it exhibited another and unexpected

Hist. Anim., 1x. 37; where a detailed account of the locomction of the Nautilus, its sailing, &c., is given.

among the pelagic mollusks on the one hand, and the littoral mollusks on the other.'

Disposition of the shell and animal when moving through the water in the direction of the arrow. (Rang.)

Argonauta Argo moving on its head at the bottom. (Rang.)

The progress of the animal, when moving as last above represented, was slow, and it worked itself onwards like the gasteropodous mollusks. M. Rang remarks that the reptation was only apparent; for the suckers really caused the motion.

When the poulp was at the point of death, it drew in by slow degrees its large arms and their membranes, and contracted them upon themselves and all the other arms, so as to obstruct the opening of the shell. At this moment the shell was moved, and the poulp separated itself from it, not voluntarily but accidentally, for it no longer held it in any way. It appeared at first to become a little reanimated, made some movements in the basin upon its head, then fell from weakness, and soon died. All this passed in less than ten minutes.

Translations of the memoirs of Madame Power and of M. Rang will be found in The Magazine of Natural History, vols. i. and ii., N. S.

In the Dibranchiate Octopods, generally, the ovary is a spherical sac with thick parietes. In the Argonaut the oviducts are two in number, long and convoluted, furnished with glandular coats throughout, but without partial enlargements: there are no separate nidamental glands. These oviducts are continued by a short common passage from the ovary and form several convolutions before they ascend to their termination, which is the same as in Octopus; but they differ from Eledone and Octopus, in having no glandular laminated bodies developed upon them: the minute ova of the Argonaut are consequently connected together by the secretion of the lining membrane of the long and tortuous oviducts. These ova occupy a greater or less proportion of the bottom of the shell; they are oval, about half a line in length before the development of the embryo has commenced, and are connected in clusters by long filaments. In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons is a preparation (No. 2657 B., Physiological Series) of an Argonaut (Argonauta rufa, Owen) with the ventral parietes of the abdomen and the gills removed, to show the female organs of generation. The ovary is lodged at the fundus of the visceral sac. The two oviducts, which are continued from its posterior part, are convoluted at first, and then advance straight forwards to the base of the funnel. (Cat., vol. iv., Owen.)

spectacle. Fixing some of the acetabula of its fore-arms upon the bottom of the basin, it erected itself upon its head, spreading out its disc, and carrying the shell straight above it in the normal position of the shells of gastropods; then, beginning to crawl, it presented the appearance of a pectinibranchiate mollusk, as M. Rang had remarked in the note to the Academy of Sciences. Half drawn back into its shell, the animal appeared to crawl upon its disc, the palmatures of which were a little raised to follow the movements of its arms. The body was hidden in the shell; the siphon placed in the anterior part of it was turned forwards; the arms which were at liberty were very much protruded and twisting round, two before and two on each side: the base of the two large arms seemed to prolong backwards the locomotive surface, and then rising along the keel, they again covered it with their large membranes, as when the poulp was swimming in deep water. Thus,' continues M. Rang, this mollusk, at once pelagic and littoral, presents a most singular anomaly; when it swims at the surface of the water, having its ventral part lowermost, and when it crawls along the bottom having it, on the contrary, uppermost; two things which are completely contrary to what we see

From the time of Aristotle the Cephalapods have been known to be dioecious with reference to the sexual organs, and there appears to be a great majority of females. We are not aware of a single instance of a male Argonaut having been taken: it remains to be proved whether this arises from the comparative activity of the males, their relatively small numbers, or from their not being furnished (which some have thought to be not an impossible case) with a shell at all.

Place in the System.-The natural situation of Argonauta appears to be that assigned to it by Professor Owen, namely in the Testaceous family of the tribe Octopoda of Mr. Owen's second order of Cephalopods-Dibranchiata.

Generic Character.-Body oblong, rounded; mantle adhering posteriorly to the head; first or dorsal pair of arms dilated and membranous at the extremity. Funnel without a valve, but articulated at its base by two ball-and-socket joints to the inner sides of the mantle. Branchial hearts with fleshy appendages. No internal horny or testaceous

sometimes produced in a singular manner. The colour (rather more liquid than in other cases) is contained in a trough having parallel slits in the bottom. The paper is made to pass quickly under the bottom of the trough, by means of a revolving cylinder, and thus obtains a deposit of colour in parallel lines, through the slits in the bottom of the trough. By a modification of this method is produced what is termed a blended ground. A trough, containing many distinct cells, is filled with various tints of any given colour, one tint to each cell. A long narrow brush being dipped into all these cells, takes up a portion of each tint, which it applies to a roller; from the roller the pigment is transferred to a revolving brush, and from the brush to the paper. Thus is produced a blended or shaded ground, which afterwards receives any desired pattern.

Bronze or imitation gold-powder is frequently applied to papers. A device being printed in japan gold-size, the powder is lightly rubbed over the paper, and adheres to the gold-size. The remainder of the pattern is commonly printed in colours. In some papers, leaf-gold, silver, or copper is applied to a portion of the pattern: this is a slow and expensive process. Some papers, in order to bear washing or cleaning, are printed with colours mixed with oil or varnish instead of size.

The modes of cutting the pieces of paper and pasting them against a wall are too obvious to need mention here.

A recent change in the duty charged on all kinds of paper, is likely to have considerable effect in extending the use and improving the manufacture of paper-hangings. The duty on the paper itself has been reduced from 3d. to 1d. per pound; while the additional duty of 1d. per square yard of paper-hangings, considered as such, has been wholly repealed. The reduction of price it has occasioned, has enabled a much larger class of persons to get their apartments papered; and it will in this way be productive not only of a great additional demand for paper, but of a great increase of comfort and cleanliness.' (M'Čulloch.) Paper-hangings are indeed now made for so low a price as five-pence for the piece of twelve yards.

With regard to the patterns of paper-hangings, we may remark, that the attention which has lately been given to the promotion of the arts of design will probably lead to much improvement in the devices for paper-hangings, as well as for other ornamental productions. A few years ago Mr. Loudon suggested that an instructive natural history paper for cottages and the walls of nurseries and schoolrooms might be formed, by printing figures of all the commoner and more important plants and animals, with the scientific and popular names beneath them; each plant or animal being surrounded by lines, so as to appear either in frames or as if painted on the ends of stones and bricks.' An ingenious suggestion on the subject of 'intellectual paper-hangings' has recently been made in No. 504 of the Penny Magazine.'

·

PAPHLAGO'NIA (Пapλayovia), a province of Asia Minor, also called Pylæmenia according to Pliny (vi. 2), was bounded on the north by the Euxine, on the south by the part of Phrygia afterwards called Galatia, on the east by Pontus, and on the west by Bithynia. It was separated from Bithynia by the Parthenius (Olu or Bartan), and from Pontus by the Halys (Kizil ermak), which was also its eastern boundary in the time of Herodotus (i. 6, 72).

mountain called Sandaracurgium, where, according to Strabo (xii., p. 562), sandaraca was obtained in mines, which were worked by criminals, who died in great numbers in consequence of the unhealthiness of the labour. The sandaraca spoken of by Strabo was probably the same as sinopis, which was a kind of red ochre, obtained by the Greeks from Sinope, from which place it derived its name.

The Paphlagonians are said by Homer (Il., ii. 851, 852) to have come to the assistance of the Trojans under the command of Pylæmenes from the country of the Heneti. This mention of the Heneti in connection with the Paphlagonians seems to have puzzled some of the antient writers. Several explanations of the passage were given; but the one which appeared most probable to Strabo (xii. 544) was that the Heneti were a Paphlagonian people, who followed Pylæmenes to Troy, and, after the death of their leader, emigrated to Thrace, and at length wandered to Italy, where they settled under the name of Veneti. Pliny (vi. 2) also connects the Heneti of Homer with the Veneti of Italy upon the authority of Cornelius Nepos; but few modern critics will be disposed to attach much credit to a rambling story of this kind, which seems to have arisen merely from the similarity of the two names.

The Paphlagonians were subdued by Croesus. (Herod., i. 28.) They afterwards formed part of the Persian empire, and were governed by a satrap in the reign of Darius Hystaspis (Herod., vii. 72); but they appear in later times, like several other nations in the remote parts of the Persian empire, to have been only nominally subject to the king of Persia. On the return of the Ten Thousand, we find that they were governed by Corylas, who does not appear to have been a satrap (apxwv, Xenophon calls him, Anab., vi. 1, s. 2), and who did not hesitate to afford assistance to the Greeks. After the death of Alexander, Paphlagonia, together with Cappadocia, fell to the share of Eumenes. (Diod. Sic., xviii. 3.) It subsequently formed part of the kingdom of Pontus; but after the conquest of Pontus by the Romans, it appears to have been allowed to have kings of its own, the last of whom was Deiotarus, the son of Castor. (Strabo, xii. 564.) Under the early Roman emperors it did not form a separate province, but was united to the province of Galatia till the time of Constantine, who first erected it into a separate province.

The principal town of Paphlagonia was Sinope (Sinoub), a colony of the Milesians (Xen., Anab., vi. 1, s. 15), which was said to have been founded by Autolycus, a companion of Jason. It was built upon a peninsula, and was for many centuries one of the most flourishing commercial towns in the Euxine. In the time of Strabo, when its trade had greatly decreased, it was a place of considerable importance. It was very strongly fortified, and possessed many handsome public buildings. The soil in the neighbourhood was very fertile, and the inhabitants were accustomed to catch off the coast great numbers of pelamydes, a species of tunny-fish. Sinope maintained its independence till the second century before the Christian æra, when it was taken by Pharnaces L., king of Pontus, and annexed to the kingdom of Pontus. Mithridates the Great, who was born there, made it the capital of his dominions, and adorned it with many public buildings. During the war which he carried on with the Romans, it was taken by Lucullus. It was subsequently made a Roman colony. Diogenes the Cynic was born in this town. (Strabo, xii. 545, 546 Plin., vi. 2.)

PAPHOS. [CYPRUS.]

PA'PIAS, one of the early Christian writers in the Greek language, was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia at the beginning of the second century. According to Cave, he flourished in the year 110, according to others in 115 or 116. He wrote five books, entitled An Explication of the Words (or Oracles) of the Lord,' which are now lost. In a passage of this work which is quoted by Eusebius, Papias professes to have taken great pains to gain information respecting Christianity from those who had known the apostles, and some remarkable statements of his respecting the apostles and evangelists are still preserved. According to Irenæus, he was himself a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp. He is said by Eusebius to have been a Millennarian, and a man of little mind, as appears,' says Eusebius, 'from his own writings.' (Eusebius, Hist. Ecc., iii. 39; Cave, Hist. Lit., under 'Papias;' Lardner's Credibility, pt. ii., PAPIER-MACHE', the French term for a preparation of moistened paper, of which many articles are manufactured in England, France, and Germany. Such articles have been made in France for more than a century, for in 1740 one Martin, a German varnisher, went to Paris to learn this manufacture from Lefevre. On returning to his own country, he was so successful in his exertions, that his paper snuff-boxes were called, after him, Martins.' So much money went from Prussia to France in purchase of papier-mâché articles, that Frederic II., in 1765, established a manufactory at Berlin, which soon became very successful. Brunswick, Nürnberg, Vienna, and other German towns, by degrees commenced the manufacture, and it is now carried on to a considerable extent.

c. 9.)

Two modes are adopted of making articles of this kind: 1, by glueing or pasting different thicknesses of paper together; 2, by mixing the substance of the paper into a pulp and pressing it into moulds. The first mode is adopted principally for those articles, such as trays, &c., in which a tolerably plain and flat surface is to be produced. Common millboard, such as forms the covers of books, may convey some idea of this sort of manufacture. Sheets of strong paper are glued together, and then so powerfully pressed that the different strata of paper become as one. Slight curvatures may be given to such pasteboard when damp by the use of presses and moulds. Some of the snuff-boxes are made by glueing pieces of paper, cut to the sizes of the top, bottom, and sides, one on another, round a frame or mould, which is afterwards removed. Articles made of pasteboard have often a fine black polish imparted to them in the following manner:-After being done over with a mixture of size and lampblack, they receive a coating of a peculiar varnish. Turpentine is boiled down till it becomes black, and three times as much amber in fine powder is sprinkled into it, with the addition of a little spirit or oil of turpentine. When the amber is melted, some sarcocolla and some more spirit of turpentine are added, and the whole well stirred. After being strained, this varnish is mixed with ivory-black, and applied in a hot room on the papier-mâché articles, which are then placed in a heated oven. Two or three coatings of the black varnish will produce a durable and glossy surface impervious to water. Papier-mâché, properly so called, however, is that which is pressed into moulds in the state of a pulp. This pulp is generally made of cuttings of coarse paper boiled in water, and beaten in a mortar till they assume the consistence of a paste, which is boiled in a solution of gum-arabic or of size to give it tenacity. The moulds are carved in the usual way and the pulp poured into them, a counter-mould being employed to make the cast nothing more than a crust or shell, as in plaster-casts. In some manufactories, instead of using cuttings of made paper, the pulp employed by the paper-maker is, after some further treatment, poured into the moulds to produce papier-mâché ornaments.

The use of ornaments made in the way just described is rapidly increasing. The carved and composition ornaments employed to decorate picture and glass frames are in some cases superseded by those of papier mâché; but it is in the decoration of ceilings and walls of rooms and the interiors of public buildings that papier-mâché is found most valuable. Plaster and composition ornaments are very ponderous; carved ornaments are costly; but those of paper are light and of moderate price. In many of our theatres, in the D C. No. 1066.

splendid steam-boats recently built, and in numerous other instances, where internal decorations are required, papiermâché ornaments have been largely employed. Maps in relief are also occasionally made of papier-mâché.

The most remarkable instance of which we have heard of the employment of papier-mâché is one of which mention is made in a recent volume of Ersch and Gruber's 'Allgemeine Encyclopädie.' Near Bergen in Norway a church has been built capable of holding nearly a thousand persons. This building is octagonal without, but perfectly circular within. The interior of the walls, as well as the exterior of the Corinthian columns, is covered with papier-mâché. The roof, the ceiling, the statues within the church, and the basso-rilievos on the outside of the walls, are also made of this substance. The papier-mâché was made waterproof and nearly fire-proof by an application of vitriol water and lime slaked with whey and white of egg. We may here remark, that paper roofs have been occasionally used in England. Sheets of stout paper are dipped in a mixture of tar and pitch, dried, nailed on in the manner of slates, and then tarred again: this roof is waterproof, but it is unfortunately very combustible.

PAPILIONA CEÆ, a fanciful name given to the principal division of Leguminous plants, from an imaginary resemblance between their flowers and a Papilio, or butterfly. This appearance is owing to the excessive irregularity of the petals of such plants, one petal being large and expanded flat, and the other four arranged in a parallel manner, and much smaller. The garden pea offers a familiar example of this structure. In technical language, the back or largest petal is the vexillum, or standard, the two external of the lateral petals alæ, or wings, and the two interior, which adhere by one edge, the carina, or keel.

PAPINIA'NUS, ÆMI'LIUS, was a pupil of the jurist Q. Cervidius Scævola at the same time with Septimius Severus, afterwards emperor. Under the emperor Marcus Aurelius he held the office of advocatus fisci, in which he succeeded S. Severus. After Severus became emperor, Papinian was his libellorum magister, and præfectus prætorio. Paulus informs us that he had given an opinion before Papinian in his auditorium. (Dig., 20, tit. 5, s. 12: Dig., 12, tit. 1, s. 40.)

Severus was always on intimate terms with Papinian, and at his death recommended to him his two sons Caracalla and Geta. Caracalla murdered his brother, and shortly after put to death Papinian, together with Papinian's son, who was quæstor. The cause of this execution is only obscurely stated (Spart., Sever., c. 21; Anton. Carac., c. 8); but it appears that the rigid morality of Papinian was shocked by the brutal conduct of Caracalla, and that he showed his disapprobation of his unnatural act.

Few Roman jurists were held in higher estimation than Papinian, and he is often cited in the most honourable manner both by the historians (Spart., Sever., c. 21) and in various parts of the code (Cod., 5, tit. 71, s, 14, &c.). Justinian (Const. ad Antecess.) in the course of study which he laid down after the completion of the Institutes,' Digest,' and Code,' in speaking of the third year's course of study, makes special mention of Papinian. The twentieth, twentyfirst, and twenty-second books of the 'Digest' were en joined to be read in place 'acutissimi Papiniani;' the name Papinianista was still to be retained by the students of the third year, and the festival formerly celebrated on the occasion of commencing his work, it was declared, should be solemnly kept as usual, in order that the memory of the great Papinian might be for ever preserved. The Digest' contains extracts from his thirty-seven books of 'Quæs tiones,' his nineteen books of Responsa,' and fragments from his two books of 'Definitiones,' his two books on Adulteria,' and a single book on Adulteria;' also from a Greek fragment, entitled ik To άorvvoμikov povobiťo rou Пlanavou, that is, 'On the duty of the Ediles in Rom and the Municipia.' Papinian is chiefly quoted by Paulus and Ulpian, and sometimes also by Marcian. portion which the extracts from Papinian bear to the whole 'Digest' is stated under JUSTINIAN'S LEGISLATION.

The pro

PAPI'RII, the name of a patrician and plebeian gens in antient Rome, who were formerly called Papisii.* (Cic., Ad Fam., ix. 21.) This gens was divided into several fami

According to Pomponius, the letter r was invented by Appius Claudius so that instead of Valerii and Furii, the Romans originally said Valesii ano Fusii. (Dig. 1, tit. 2, s. 2, § 36.)

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