the command of the king, and the high-priest of On the less dared to disobey the king, since, according to the result of modern investigations, the Pharaohs themselves at all times were invested

or "sacred scribes" distinct from the priestly caste, inferior indeed to the Chakamím, or chief priests, but not so far removed from them in dignity as to be excluded from their alliance. To avoid anything like a parade of learning, we shall state the evidence for the existence of a "sacred order" distinct from a "sacred caste," as briefly as possible. In the fourth and fifth lines of the Greek inscription on the Rosetta Stone, in the British Museum, we find Grecian ladies—and, among others, Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy-recorded as "priestesses;" a conclusive proof that strangers were admitted into some kind of sacerdotal order under the Macedonian kings of Egypt; though it is notorious that the chief policy of the Ptolemies was to restore the religious institutions of the Pharaohs. Diodorus Siculus describes Athyrtis, the daughter of King Sesoosis, as remarkably skilful in divination (μavrin xpwμɛvŋv), and taking her omens from sacrifices and visions in the temple itself. The sixth line of the Rosetta Stone thus enumerates the members of the Egyptian hierarchy: "The chief priests and prophets, and those who have access to the shrines to clothe the gods, and the pterophora, and the sacred scribes, and all the other sacred persons." Now the pterophora (“wing-bearers ") appear to have been a higher order of the "sacred scribes." Diodorus Siculus expressly mentions the wearing of wings on the head as an attribute of this class, (i. 87) ; and Clemens Alexandrinus uses εχων πτερα επι της κεφαλης (having wings over the head) as an equivalent to ɩɛpoypaμμatɛvç (“sacred scribe.") Now, it appears exceedingly improbable that any ceremony similar to ordination should be requisite in the case of a hereditary priesthood; but we find, from the monuments, that such a form was used in Egypt, and the smaller size of the person thus initiated, intimates his inferiority to the officiating priests. The "winged sun," under which the ceremony is performed, was the well-known symbol of "a protecting and superintending Providence';" and hence the beautiful allusion of the prophet Malachi: "Unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of righteousness arise with healing in his wings; and ye shall go forth, and grow up as calves of the stall." (Mal. iv. 2.) The wings ascribed to the sacred scribes have probably a reference to this symbol; for, as the learned Drunann justly observes, Hesychius gives πтεроν (a wing) as an equivalent to oknun (any overshadowing); and hence, instead of actually wearing wings on their heads, the pterophora may merely have displayed this symbol above it. Lucian speaks of the "sacred scribes" as a body distinct from the priesthood; and we find Moses making a similar distinction between the priests and the professors of magical arts. (Deut. xiii. 10). We have been rather minute in our examination of this point, because one of the greatest objections brought against this part of the Sacred Writings is the improbability of a foreigner like Joseph being allowed to exercise sacerdotal functions, and form a priestly connection.

with the highest sacerdotal dignity,' and consequently possessed not an external authority merely, over the priesthood. The transaction assumes an entirely different aspect when we consider that Joseph did not by any means marry the daughter of the highpriest while a foreign shepherd, but after he had been fully naturalized by the king, had assumed the Egyptian dress, taken an Egyptian name, &c. Chap. xliii. 32 shows, that Joseph had formally withdrawn from the community of his own people, and connected himself with the Egyptians. In the circumstance that this is represented as necessary, as well as in the fact that Pharaoh believed it important to give a firm basis to the position of Joseph by a union with the daughter of the high-priest of On, we plainly recognise the traces of that Egyptian intolerance, which v. Bohlen fails to perceive here, and which in later times certainly appears to have very much increased. To this we shall have occasion hereafter to advert.

But this improbability is removed when we find a sacerdotal order into which distinguished persons were admitted, without any reference to their descent; and we may add, that Pythagoras, according to Plutarch, was similarly admitted to the privileges of the Egyptian priesthood, though a foreigner, by command of King Amasis.

T.

2 It is quite clear from the narrative, that Joseph had taken extraordinary pains to naturalize himself in Egypt. As a stranger is said to have been recognised in Athens from the superior purity of his Attic dialect, so the chief means by which Joseph could be recognised as a foreigner, was his greater strictness in adhering to purely Egyptian usages. This strictness had nearly led to his detection, when he caused his brethren to be marshalled at the banquet in the order of their age. "And they sat before him, the first-born according to his birthright, and the youngest according to his youth and the men marvelled one at another." (Gen. xlii. 33.) The mention of the posture used at table, proves that the writer of the history was well acquainted with Egyptian customs, for the patriarchal usage was to recline at meals. (Gen. xviii. 4.) There are indeed frequent instances of couches on the Egyptian monuments, but these were only used for sleeping; in all the representations of entertainments the ladies and gentlemen are depicted sitting on stools or chairs. It is also mentioned that Joseph sat apart from the rest, and we find from the monuments that a separate table was usually placed before each of the distinguished guests present. The number and variety of dishes set on each table were proportioned to the rank of each guest, or to the estimation in which he was held by the person who gave the entertainment. To this custom allusion is distinctly made by the sacred writer. (Gen. xliii. 34.) T.

JOSEPH COLLECTS THE PRODUCE OF THE SEVEN YEARS OF PLENTY.

The labours of Joseph described in chap. xli. 48, 49, in building store-houses, are placed vividly before us in the paintings upon the monuments, which show how common the store-house was in ancient Egypt. In a tomb at Elethya, a man is represented whose business it evidently was to take account of the number of bushels which another man acting under him measures. The inscription is as follows: The writer or registrar of bushels, Thutnofre. Then follows the transportation of the grain. From the measurer others take it in sacks and carry it to the store-houses.

tomb of Amenemhe at Beni Hassan, there is the painting of a great store-house, before whose door lies a large heap of grain, already winnowed. The measurer fills a bushel, in order to pour it into the uniform sacks of those who carry the grain to the corn magazine. The carriers go to the door of the store-house and lay down the sacks before an officer who stands ready to receive the corn. This is the overseer of the store-house. Near by stands the bushel with which it is measured and the registrar who takes the account. At the side of the windows there are characters which indicate the quantity of the mass which is deposited in the magazine. Compare with this the clause,' "Until he left numbering," in verse 49. By these paintings, light is also thrown upon the remark in Ex. i. 11: "And they [the Israelites] built for Pharaoh treasure-cities.'

Rosellini, II. p. 324 seq.

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2 According to Champollion, Briefe, S. 228, the wide halls of the great palace at Thebes, which are surrounded by large colonnades, all have the name Manosk, according to the Egyptian inscription, i. e. the place of the harvest, and hence is derived, the place where corn is measured. Is this Manosk probably the same as the Hebrew, ni? Here we may remark, that the Egyptians paid great attention to the storing of their corn; the granaries appear to have been public buildings; they are represented on the monuments as of vast extent, and it deserves to be remarked, that the roofs are generally arched. They were probably excavated, and this may serve as a confirmation of the theory, that the first notion of the arch was suggested by caves. When we see the vast extent of these stores, as represented on the monuments, we cannot doubt that they would contain sufficient corn to supply not only the wants of Egypt, but also of the neighbouring nations, during the seven years of famine.

T.

FAMINE IN EGYPT AND THE ADJOINING COUNTRIES.

The declaration that famine seized at the same time upon Egypt and the adjoining country, appears at first view suspicious, and indeed with reference to this also, v. Bohlen has very confidently charged the author with ignorance of the natural condition of Egypt. The climate and tillage of Egypt do not stand in even the most remote connection with Palestine. In Egypt fertility depends, not as in Palestine, on the rains, but entirely on the overflowing of the Nile. But on a closer examination the suspicion changes into its direct opposite. The account of the author is shown to be entirely in accordance with natural phenomena, and the reproach of "ignorance respecting the country of Egypt comes back upon him who made the accusation. Had the author known Egypt only by hearsay, he would probably have written in the manner that v. Bohlen demands of him. The fruitfulness of Egypt depends, it is true, upon the inundations of the Nile. But these are occasioned, as even Herodotus knew, by the tropical rains which fall upon the Abyssinian mountains.2 These rains have the same origin with those in Palestine. "It is now decided," says Le Père,3 "that the Nile owes its increase to the violent rains which proceed from the clouds that are formed upon the Mediterranean Sea, and carried so far by the winds, which annually at nearly the same time blow from the north. There are not wanting also other examples of years of dearth, which were common to Egypt with the adjoining countries. Thus Macrizi describes a famine which took place in Egypt, on account of a deficiency in the increase of the Nile, in the year of the Hejra 444, which at the same time extended over Syria and even to Bagdad.

But v. Bohlen goes so far as even to impute it to the author's "ignorance of the natural condition of Egypt," that he represents a famine as coming upon this country at all. The overflowing of the Nile never fails to take place altogether, or for several years in succession, and the Delta is fruitful even without it, &c. And yet there is scarcely a land on the earth in which famine has raged, so often and so terribly as in this same Egypt, or a land that so very much needs the measures which Joseph adopted for Descr. t. 7. p. 576.

1 S. 421.

Ritter Erdk. 1. S. 835.

In Quatremère, Mem, s. l' Eg. t. 2. p. 313.

the preservation of the people. Macrizi could write a whole volume on the famines in Egypt! The swelling of the Nile a few feet above or below what is necessary, proves alike destructive. Particular instances of famine which history has handed down to us, are truly horrible, and the accounts of them are worthy of notice also, inasmuch as they present the services of Joseph in behalf of Egypt in their true light. Abdollatiph2 relates thus : "In the year 569 Hejra, (1199) the height of the flood was small almost without example. The consequence was a terrible famine, accompanied by indescribable enormities. Parents consumed their children, human flesh was in fact a very common article of food; they contrived various ways of preparing it. They spoke of it and heard it spoken of as an indifferent affair. Mancatching became a regular business. The greater part of the population were swept away by death. In the following year also, the inundation did not reach the proper height, and only the low lands were overflowed. Also much of that which was inundated could not be sown for want of labourers and seed, much was destroyed by worms, which devoured the seed corn; also of the seed which escaped this destruction, a great part produced only meagre shoots which perished." Compare with this account the “thin ears and blasted with the east wind," in chap. xli. 6. Macrizi3 has given an account of the famine in 457, which was not at all less severe than that of 596 (Hejra). The calif himself nearly perished with hunger.

JOSEPH, HIS BRETHREN AND THE EGYPTIANS SIT AT AN ENTERTAINMENT.

According to chap. xliii. 32, at the entertainment to which Joseph invited his brethren, they sat apart from the Egyptians, while Joseph was again separated from both. The author shows the reason of this in the remark: "Because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an abomination to the Egyptians." Herodotus also remarks, that the Egyptians abstained from all familiar intercourse with foreigners, since these were unclean to them, especially because they slew and ate the animals which were sacred among the Egyptians. "Therefore

1 Le Père, Descr. 18. p. 573.

4

* In Quatremère, t. 2. p. 401 seq.