PART SIXTH.

HEGEMONY OF SPARTA.

CHAPTER I.

STATE OF HELLAS AFTER THE WAR

Spartan Oppression.

LYSANDER, having by the overthrow of Samos entirely ended the war, returned in triumph to Sparta, bringing with him all the triremes that he had found in the Peiræus, except the twelve which he left to the Athenians, as well as the ships that he had captured at Egospotami and elsewhere, and four hundred and seventy talents remaining from the treasures given him by Cyrus for the continuation of the contest. Never either before or after him did a Greek receive such a splendid ovation from his country and so many honors from entire Hellas. The cities not only voted to him golden crowns, but established altars and composed pæans and hymns in his praise, as to a god. The Ephesians placed his statue in the temple of Artemis, and the Samians named their principal holiday "Lysandria." Many contemporaneous poets, such as Antilochus and Nikeratus, extolled his fame, and the Hellenic world vied in the honors bestowed upon him.

But if no other Greek ever attained to such power in Hellas, no other Hellenic city ever acquired the power of Sparta during that epoch. The promise of liberty for Hel

las, the promises for which the Peloponnesian war was declared, the promises which we saw at intervals repeated through Brasidas and Kallikratidas, and which the allies when they were destroying the long walls and ship-yards of the Athenians regarded as still certain-these were dissolved like a dream, and Sparta openly assumed the supremacy of all Hellas-a supremacy much stronger and more oppressive than that of the Athenians. The supremacy of the latter was established to defend the Hellenes against the Persians, and it finally compelled the barbarians to recognize the autonomy not only of the islands, but of all the Hellenic cities throughout Asia Minor. The first act of the hegemony of Sparta was to relegate to the Persian rule nearly all the Hellenic cities on the coasts of Ionia, Æolis, and the Hellespont. The Lacedæmonians appear to have retained Abydos only. The states subject to Spartan rule were compelled to submit to an oligarchical form of government, composed of ten of the worst followers of Lysander, over whom presided a Lacedæmonian dignitary termed harmost. At Athens the thirty tyrants were left in power; in other places a Lacedæmonian garrison was maintained; and all paid a heavier tribute than the one levied by Athens, amounting from the outset to one thousand talents per anIf now to the naval strength thus acquired we add the territorial domain possessed by Sparta, we may easily understand how much more powerful was the Spartan supremacy than the Attic.

num.

Thus, after the subjection of Athens, Sparta imposed her law and will upon Hellas, and appeared to have fulfilled the dream so often indulged of establishing one Hellenic empire. But the Spartan supremacy was itself of short duration. How could it have been otherwise, characterized as it was by all the errors of the Attic dominion, and much more oppressive? The allies, and especially the Thebans and the Corinthians, were discontented from the very first;

because, having asked for a portion of the booty obtained by the common struggle, they were wantonly insulted. Again, the oligarchy of Sparta itself could not long endure the authority which Lysander acquired throughout Hellas. Hence a faction arose there which sought only a pretext to break forth openly. This was soon found, since many cities were cruelly tyrannized over, and others had causes of displeasure.

Cruelties of the Thirty.

We have seen that after the capture of Athens Lysander surrendered that city to the discretion of thirty men. These were appointed especially for the purpose of drawing up new laws and a new constitution; but instead they forcibly assumed the government, known as that of "the Thirty,' appointing as many new magistrates and officers as they pleased, and also a new senate composed of persons of assured oligarchical character and of their warmest adherents. Thus the senate was simply plastic in the hands of the Thirty. Every trace of a popular assembly and of heliastic courts disappeared.

The tyranny exercised by the Thirty was more or less repeated in other cities. The crimes which they committed are unfortunately to be met with in all such civil revulsions, and were renewed almost to the letter during the great French reign of terror. First, they punished those who, by their disgraceful conduct during the democracy, were really worthy of death. Later, however, they attempted to put to death all the prominent men of the democratic party; and since they foresaw that such multiplied cases of execution and spoliation would inevitably create an opposition, they sent to Sparta for a guard, promising that they would themselves assume its keeping. This guard occupied the Acropolis, and the Thirty now commenced a pitiless slaughter of the democrats, confiscating the property of those who succeeded in saving their lives by flight, as did Thrasybu

lus and others. They also issued decrees of banishment, as in the case of Alkibiades. Nor was their vengeance sated with all this, but they now laid hands upon the prominent men of every party, not even excepting the oligarchs themselves; for they killed the brother of Nikias, and also his son, who had succeeded not only to the large fortune of his father, but to his known dissatisfaction with the democratic government. However, all of the Thirty were not of one opinion respecting these murders. Theramenes believed that the death of the most obnoxious democrats ought to suffice, because the shedding of more blood became dangerous by causing disturbances, increasing the number of their enemies, and estranging friends and others. But Kritias, the most violent among them, thought differently. He belonged to one of the best families of the city, was wealthy, and possessed an excellent education and intelligence. Maddened by his reckless spirit, he came to the conclusion that murder, robbery, and every other crime were the lawful aids of a political career. Thus slaughter, confiscation, and banishment continued. Theramenes finally grew alarmed at the growing indignation of the people, and proposed that all Athenians who could serve the city in a military way should take part in the formation of the government, or in other words should be constituted citizens. Kritias consented that a catalogue should be drawn up of three thousand men to be invested with the political franchise, chosen as much as possible from their own friends and companions. To these exemption from death was granted, except by a vote of the senate, while the lives of all the other Athenians depended on the will of the Thirty. In that political paroxysm in which the question was one of life or death, the only thing considered was how one could save his life, or at least could ward off death as long as possible.

The list of the three thousand having been completed, Kritias and his party disarmed all Athenian citizens. Be

lieving now that they could do just as they pleased, they killed many on account of personal enmity, and not a few on account of their money. Above all, Kritias, seeing that Theramenes continued to oppose these violent measures, decided to get rid of him also. But the senate was well disposed toward Theramenes. Kritias, therefore, on his own authority, struck his name from the list of the three thousand, and had him condemned to death by the Thirty. Theramenes died bravely, and it is said that after he had swallowed the draught of hemlock there remained a drop at the bottom of the cup, which he poured out on the floor,* saying, "Let this be for the gentle Kritias,” thus setting forth the fate which his violent antagonist deserved. But the whole political career of Theramenes was unprincipled, and for his vacillation he was called "Kothornos," a name given to a kind of shoe fitting either foot, and worn by both men and women.

Overthrow of the Thirty.

Such was the tyranny of the Thirty from April to December, 404 B. C. During this time about fifteen hundred victims were sacrificed at Athens. But now clouds began to gather

on the horizon. It has been seen that several Athenians had saved their lives by flight. These fugitives, the most prominent of whom was Thrasybulus, found refuge both at Thebes and Megara. These cities were dissatisfied with the haughty and unjust constitution of Lysander and of Sparta, and disobeyed the decree which required the fugitives to be at once surrendered to the Thirty, under a penalty of five talents. Thrasybulus and his party, availing themselves of the protection which they obtained in these neighboring cit

*This was done according to the playful convivial practice called the kottabus, which was supposed to furnish an omen by the sound of wine-drops thrown into a metallic vessel, and after which the person who had just drunk handed the goblet to the guest whose turn came next.