by the blood of the noblest citizens of Rome, shed in a proscription more ruthless and sanguinary than those of Márius and Sylla. The most illustrious of the victims was the celebrated Cicéro, whose severe invectives against Antony had procured him the relentless hatred of the triumvir. Octávius is said to have hesitated long before consenting to the sacrifice of the greatest orator that Rome ever produced, and the most patriotic of her recent statesmen; but at length he permitted the fatal consent to be extorted, and Cicéro fell a victim to a band of assassins, headed by a tribune whom he had formerly defended and preserved in a capital cause.

The triumvirs having taken vengeance on their enemies in Italy, began to prepare for carrying on war against Brútus and Cas'sius. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war: the republicans at first seemed destined to conquer; they appeared to possess superior talents and greater forces by land and sea. But in the double battle at Philip'pi, fortune rather than talent gave the victory to the triumvirs; and Cas'sius destroyed himself after the first contest, and Brútus after the second (B. c. 42). Antony made a cruel use of his victory, putting to death his political opponents without mercy. Octávius emulated the crimes of his colleague, and treated the most illustrious of his prisoners with barbarity and abusive language.

After his victory Antony visited Greece, where he was received with the most refined flattery. Thence he passed into Asia, where all the sovereigns of the East came to offer him homage; but he was most gratified by a visit from the celebrated Cleopátra, who rendered the voluptuous triumvir a captive to her charms. Resigning all his plans of war against the Parthians, he followed this celebrated beauty into Egypt, and in her company neglected all care of public affairs. Octávius Cæsar, on the other hand, proceeded to Italy, and took the most efficacious means for securing the permanence of his power. Lucius the brother, and Ful'via the wife of Antony, excited a new war against Octávius; but they were soon defeated, and the capture of their principal stronghold, Perúsia (B. c. 41), rendered Cæsar's nephew master of Italy, and almost the recognised heir of his uncle's power.

Antony was still immersed in pleasure at Alexandria, when he received the account of his brother's defeat, and the ruin of his party in Italy; at the same time he heard that Octávius had made himself master of both Gauls, and had got all the legions into his hands that were quartered in those districts. He was roused by these tidings from his lethargy, and immediately proceeded toward Italy; but blaming Ful'via for all his disasters, he treated her with so much contempt, that she died of a broken heart. This circumstance paved the way to a reconciliation; Antony married Octávia, the half-sister of his rival, and a new division was made of the Roman empire. Sex'tus Pom'pey, who during the troubles had become powerful by sea, was included in the new arrangements, and obtained the possession of the Peloponnésus and several important islands.

But the mutual jealousies of the triumvirs rendered peace of short duration. Octávius drove Pom'pey from Sicily, and compelled him to seek refuge in the East, where he was put to death by one of Antony's lieutenants; and about the same time he deprived Lep'idus of all his

power, and took possession of his dominions. Antony, while his rival was thus acquiring strength, degraded himself by an unsuccessful war against the Parthians; after which he returned to Alexandria, and lost all regard to his character or his interest in the company of Cleopátra. Octávia went to the East, hoping to withdraw her husband from the fascinating siren; but the infatuated triumvir refused to see her, and sent her orders to return home. He completed this insult by sending her a bill of divorce, and professing a previous marriage with Cleopátra. Preparations for war were instantly made on both sides; but Antony's debauchery, and slavery to the caprices of an abandoned woman, disgusted his best friends, and many of them deserting him brought such an account of his extravagance to Rome, that the indignant citizens passed a decree for deposing him from the consulship.

The great rivals were soon in readiness for action. Antony had the most numerous forces; but Octávius had the advantage of a more disciplined army, and, at least in appearance, a better cause. Their fleets and armies were soon assembled at the opposite sides of the gulf of Ambrácia, where they remained for several months without coming to a decisive engagement. At length, Antony, instigated by Cleopátra, formed the fatal resolution of deciding the contest by a naval battle. The fleets met off the promontory of Ac'tium (September 2, B. c. 31), while the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were simple spectators of the battle. For a long time success was doubtful; until Cleopátra, wearied with expectation, and overcome with fear, unexpectedly tacked about, and fled toward the Peloponnesus with the Egyptian squadron of sixty sail; and, what is more surprising, Antony himself, now regardless of his honor, fled after her, abandoning his men who so generously exposed their lives for his interest. The battle, notwithstanding, continued till five in the evening, when Antony's forces were partly constrained to submit by the great conduct of Agrip'pa, and partly persuaded by the liberal promises of Octávius. The army of Antony could not believe in the flight of their general, and held out for seven days in expectation of his returning to join them; but hearing no tidings of him, and being deserted by their allies, they hasted to make terms with the

conqueror.

Antony and Cleopátra continued their flight to Egypt, where the queen displayed more courage and enterprising spirit than her lover. She caused some of her galleys to be carried over the isthmus (of Suez) into the Red sea, proposing to save herself, with her treasures, in an unknown world; but the Arabians having burned her vessels, she was forced to abandon a design so full of difficulties, and she therefore commenced fortifying the avenues of her kingdom, and making preparations for war. She also solicited foreign assistance, addressing herself to all the princes in the alliance of Antony. While Cleopátra was thus employed, Antony exhibited the most lamentable weakness: at first he affected to imitate Tímon the misanthrope, and shut himself up without either friends or domestics; but his natural temper did not allow him to remain long in this state, and quitting his cell, he gave himself up to feasting and every kind of extravagance.

In the meantime, the forces of Octávius advanced on each side of Egypt. Cornélius Gal'lus took possession of Paretónium, which was the

key of Egypt on the west side; and Antony, who speeded with his fleet and army to wrest it out of his hands, was forced to retire with great loss, especially of his ships. Pelúsium, the eastern security of the kingdom, was surrendered to Octávius at the first summons: it was reported that Seleúcus the governor betrayed the place by Cleopátra's orders; but she, to clear herself from such an imputation, delivered up his wife and children into Antony's hands. Cæsar advanced to besiege Alexandria: Antony made an effort to impede his march, but he was abandoned by his soldiers; and finding he could not die with glory in the field, he returned to Alexandria, overcome with rage and fury, running and crying out, "that Cleopátra had betrayed him, when he had ruined all his fortunes for her sake alone." The queen, hearing his violent transports, retired in terror to a monument she had erected, secured the doors, and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news, Antony attempted to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound hearing, however, in the midst of his agonies, that Cleopátra still lived he caused himself to be transported to her monument, and expired in her presence.

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Cleopátra seems to have formed some hope of obtaining the same influence over Octávius Cæsar that she had exercised over Antony; but finding the conqueror insensible to her charms, and having received secret information that he reserved her to adorn his triumph, she bribed a countryman to convey an asp to her in a basket of figs, and applied the venomous creature to her arm, and thus died. Egypt was then reduced into the form of a Roman province, and its immense riches transported to Rome, which enabled Octávius to pay all he owed to his soldiers. On his return to Rome, the senate saluted him by the honorable name of Augus'tus, and by a unanimous vote conceded to him the entire authority of the state.

The era of the Roman empire is usually dated from Jan. 1st, B. c. 28. The title of Augus'tus was at first only personal, and did not convey any idea of sovereignty: several of the imperial family took it who never were emperors, such as German'icus. The female line, who had not the least shadow of sovereignty with the Romans, had it as Antónia Major; and thus Liv'ia first took the name of Augusta when she was adopted, by her husband's will, into the Julian family. After the time of Dioclésian it was changed into Sem'per Augus'tus; and this title was, in modern times, assumed by the emperors of Germany and Austria. It may appear surprising that the Romans made no vigorous effort to recover their republican constitution; but, in truth, Roman liberty was destroyed when the Grac'chi were murdered: all the subsequent civil dissensions were contests for power between different sections of the oligarchy; and the people, weary of the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly sought shelter from the tyranny of the nobles in the despotic sway of a single master.

CHAPTER XVI.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF

THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.-European Countries.-Spain.

IN general the boundaries of the Roman empire may be described as the great western ocean, the rivers Rhine and Danube in Europe, the chain of Mount Caucasus, the river Euphrátes and the Syrian deserts in Asia, and the sandy deserts of Africa. It thus included the fairest portions of the known world surrounding the Mediterranean sea.

Its most western province was the Spanish peninsula, whose boundaries, being fixed by nature, continue unvaried. This great country, usually called Iberia by the Greeks, either from a colony of Iberians, or from the river Iberus (Ebro), was known to the Romans by the names Hispania or Hesperia. It was usually divided into three great portions, Lusitania, Bætica or Hispania Ulterior, and Tarraconensis or Hispania Citerior.

The chief islands were the major and minor Baleáres (Majorca and Minorca), whose inhabitants were celebrated for their skill as slingers

and archers.

SECTION II.-Transalpine Gaul.

ANCIENT Gaul was bounded on the north and south by the sea, on the west by the Pyrenees, and on the east by the rivers Rhine and Var. It was divided into three great sections, Bel'gia, Aquitánia, and Gal'lia Própria; in which the language, manners, and customs, differed considerably.

The religion of the ancient Gauls, like that of the ancient Britons, was druidical; they worshipped a supreme deity called Hésus, or Æsar, to whom they believed the oak to be sacred, especially if the parasitical plant called mistletoe were found growing upon it. Their rites were very sanguinary: human victims were sacrificed in their groves and circles of stone; and it is said that their nobles occasionally volunteered to offer themselves upon the national altars. Temples were not erected in Gaul, until after its conquest by the Romans; but long before that period the worship of a crowd of inferior deities had been introduced.

The several Gallic tribes were usually independent of each other; but on great occasions a general council of the nation was summoned,

especially when preparations were made for any of the great migrations which proved so calamitous to Greece and Italy. Their superior valor rendered these tribes very formidable to all the southern nations; it was commonly said, that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls for actual existence. But from the time of the subjugation of their country by Julius Cæsar, their valor seemed to have disappeared together with their liberty; they never revolted, except when the extortions of their rulers became insupportable; and their efforts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. In no province did Roman civilization produce greater effects than in Gaul; many public works of stupendous size and immense utility were constructed; roads were constructed and paved with stone; durable bridges were built, and aqueducts formed to supply the cities with water. Remains of these mighty works are still to be found, and they can not be viewed without wonder and admiration.

SECTION III.-Britain.

THOUGH Britain was not reduced to the form of a Roman province until long after the time of Julius Cæsar, yet, as that general brought it nominally under subjection, it will be better to describe its ancient state here than to interrupt the history of the empire in a subsequent chapter. The name of Britain was originally given to the cluster of islands in the Atlantic now called British, the largest of which bore the name of Albion. The southern part of Albion, or England, was originally colonized from Gaul; the tribes that inhabited the east and north are said to have been of German descent; and there is a constant tradition, that the Scots in the northwest came originally from Ireland.

That part of Britain now included in the kingdom of England and principality of Wales, was anciently divided among seventeen tribes, to whom probably some of inferior note were subject.

The principality of Wales, formerly comprehending the whole country beyond the Severn, was inhabited, in the Roman times, by the Silúres, the Dem'etæ, and the Ordovíces. The last-named tribe possessed North Wales, and long bade defiance to the Roman power in their mountain fastnesses. The island of Móna (Anglesey), celebrated as the ancient seat of the Druids, belonged to the Ordovíces.

The inhabitants of the country beyond the Firths of Solway and the Forth were named M'eta and Caledónii, but, in a later age, the Picts and Scots. Juvérna, or Hiber'nia (Ireland), was known only by name to the Romans.

Three walls, strengthened by castles, were successively raised to check the incursions of the Picts and Scots by the emperors Adrian, Antoninus, and Severus. The last was the most important, according to Camden, who seems to have traced it with great care. It began at Blatobul'gium (Bulness), on the Irish sea, kept along the side of Solway Firth, by Burgh-upon-sands, to Lugoval'lum (Carlisle), where it passed the Itúna (Eden). Thence it was carried on over the little rivers Cambeck, Living, and Poltrose, into the Northumbrian hills, along which it passed to the German ocean. This wall was about eight feet thick, and was protected by a ditch twelve yards broad.