SECTION V.-Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians.

66

WEAVING of cotton, woollen stuffs, and carpets, were the principal manufactures established in Bab'ylon; and the cotton robes called sindónes, probably a species of muslins, were so highly esteemed for their delicacy of texture and brilliancy of color, that they were appropriated to royal use. We read in the book of Joshua, that a Babylonish garment" formed part of the sacrilegious spoil which A'chan hid in his tent after the conquest of Jer'icho. Articles of luxury, such as perfumed waters, carved walking-canes, engraved stones, and seal rings, were made in the city; and the art of cutting precious stones was carried to a perfection not exceeded by our modern lapidaries, as is manifest from the collection of Babylonian gems in the British Museum.

The Babylonians had an extensive commerce eastward with Persia and northern India, whence they obtained gold, precious stones, rich dye-stuff's, and the best hounds. From Kandahar and Kashmir they procured fine wool, and the shawls which are still so highly valued. Emeralds, jaspers, and other precious stones, procured from the desert of Bac'tria, the modern Cobi, were brought in great abundance to Bab'ylon, and thence transmitted to western Asia and Europe. Cochineal, or rather the Indian lac, was imported in considerable quantities; indeed, the Greeks confess that they derived their knowledge of the insect which produces this dye from the Babylonians. Gold and golddust were also obtained from northern India, but more as articles of tribute than of commerce. It is uncertain whether any commerce was opened with China before the latter ages of the Persian empire; but the Babylonians had certainly intercourse with Tibet and the countries round the Hindú Kúsh.

It was chiefly through their commercial allies, the Phoenicians, that the Babylonians had any trade in the Indian seas, though Isaiah plainly states that they had a navy of their own; for he mentions "the Chaldeans, whose cry [exultation] is in their ships." The trade by sea was between the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrátes, and the western coasts of India and the island of Ceylon. From these countries they imported timber of various kinds, sugar-canes, spices, cinnamon, and pearls. This trade was completely destroyed by the Persians, through fear of the pirates who infested those seas, and who, by a sudden dash up the great rivers, like the Normans and Danes of Europe, might surprise and plunder the chief cities of the empire. To prevent this misfortune, they blocked up the Tígris with immense dams, which effectually put an end to all navigation on the river, and to the intercourse between Bab'ylon and southern India.

At a very early period the Babylonians formed commercial establishments on the Bahrein islands in the Persian gulf, whence they obtained large quantities of the finest pearls. Pearl-oysters are found on almost all the coasts in this gulf, but the most considerable bank is that which extends along the western coast, from the Bahrein islands, nearly as far as Cape Dsiulfar. The pearls are both white and yellow, they are also as hard as rock, and are therefore preferred to

Isaiah xlii. 14.

the pearls of Ceylon, which shiver to pieces when struck with a hammer. The cotton plantations on these islands were very extensive, and the staple of the cotton wool they produced was remarkable for its length and fineness, surpassing in this respect the cotton of India. From these islands the Babylonians, and after them the Phœnicians, obtained the best timber for ship-building, probably some species of the Indian teak-wood, which continues to be highly valued for this purpose. They also imported various kinds of ornamental timber, used in the manufacture of walking-canes and inlaid work, for which the Babylonians were deservedly celebrated.

CHAPTER IV.

WESTERN ASIA:

INCLUDING

ASIA MINOR, SYRIA, AND PALESTINE.

SECTION I-Asia Minor.-Geographical Outline.

ASIA MINOR is a term not used by classical writers: it was invented in the middle ages, to describe the peninsula between the Egean, the Black sea, the Caspian, and the Levant, which by more recent authors is called Anatólia. It included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different periods. In the northern part of the peninsula, beginning from the western side, the chief countries were My'sia, Bithyn'ia, Paphlagónia, and Pon'tus. In the centre, Lyd'ia, Phrygia, Galátia, Lycaónia, Isaúria, Cappadócia, and Arménia. In the south were Cária, Ly'cia, Pisid'ia, Pamphy'lia, and Cilic'ia.

The western part of My'sia, on the seacoast, was called Lesser Phrygia, or Tróas. It was celebrated for the Trojan plains and the city of Troy, immortalized by Hómer.

Bithyn'ia, Paphlagónia, and Pon'tus, skirt the Black sea, and were studded with Greek colonies during the flourishing age of Grecian commerce. The Hálys and San'garis, the principal rivers of Asia Minor, fall into the Black sea.

The entire west coast of Asia Minor was colonized by the Greeks, whose commercial cities in Iónia, Æólia, and Cária, were the most flourishing free states of antiquity, before they were conquered by the Persians.

Lyd'ia, called also Mæónia, besides the Greek cities on its coasts, contained the celebrated metropolis Sar'dis, which stood on the banks of the Pactólus, at the foot of Mount Tmólus. It was the capital of the Lydian kingdom, and, after its conquest by the Persians, was regarded as one of the chief cities of their empire.

The boundaries of Phry'gia were almost constantly varying; its chief cities were Gor'dium and Celæ'næ in ancient times; but many others were erected when the Macedonians became masters of the country; of which the chief were Apaméa, Laodicéa, and Colossé. Galátia received its name from a body of Gauls who entered that country in the third century before the Christian era. Isaúria and Lycaónia were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. Cappadocia lay between the Hálys and Euphrátes: its chief town was Maz'aca. Arménia was the name of the mountainous districts bordering on the Caspian sea its chief rivers were the Cy'rus and Arax'es, both of

considerable magnitude. For a long time it was without cities; but at length Tigránes, one of its monarchs, erected Tigranocer'ta.

Cária was chiefly remarkable for the Greek colonies on the coast. Lyc'ia, Pisídia, and Pam'phylia, were mountainous districts. Cilícia bordered upon Syria, from which it was separated by Mount Am'anus: its chief cities were Tar'sus and Anchiale, both founded by Sardanapálus.

SECTION II.-Ancient History of Asia Minor.

THE three kingdoms of Asia Minor that best deserve notice were the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. The history of Troy consists of mere traditions preserved by the Greek epic and dramatic poets; its chronology is very uncertain, and the entire narrative very doubtful. Troy is said to have been originally founded by Dar'danus, a native of Samothrace (about в. c. 1400). To him succeeded Erichthónius, celebrated for his splendid herds of horses; Tros, who named the city Troy; I'lus, who changed the name to I'lium; Laom'edon, during whose reign the city was sacked by Her'cules; and Podar'kes, who was also called Príam. Alexander, or Paris, the son of Príam, being sent as ambassador into southern Greece, carried off Helen, the wife of Menelaüs, king of Sparta. The Grecian kings espoused the cause of the injured husband, and with their united forces warred against Troy. The city was taken after a siege that lasted ten years, and was pillaged and burned by the conquerors.

PHRYGIAN history is also composed of obscure traditions; but that the Phrygians were originally a very powerful people, appears from the great diffusion of their national worship throughout Europe. The investigations of modern travellers have brought to light new proofs of the greatness of the Phrygians in their tombs and temples excavated from the solid rock. Their chief deity was Cybéle, who seems to have been a personification of the prolific powers of the earth: her priests were named Coryban'tes; celebrated for their frantic dances, in which they beat and cut themselves. Most of the Phrygian kings were named either Mídas or Gor'dius; but the order of their succession can not be ascertained. Gor'dius I., the founder of the city Gor'dium, was originally a peasant; when raised to the throne, he consecrated his cart to the gods. The beam was fastened to the yoke by a complicated knot; and a traditional oracle declared, that whoever untied the knot should be king of Asia. When this was told to Alexander the Great, he cut it through with his sword. In the reign of Mídas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire.

The LYDIANS, called also Mæónians, were a branch of the Carians. Three dynasties reigned over them successively. That of the Aty'adæ terminated (B. c. 1232) in the person of Om'phale, who was said to be the wife of Hercules. The race of the Heraclidæ terminated with Candaúles, who was murdered at the instigation of his queen, by Gy'ges, a Lydian nobleman (B. c. 727). Gy'ges founded the dynasty of the Merm'nadæ, under whose sway Lyd'ia rose to great power. During the reign of Ar'dys, the second of the dynasty, Asia Minor was de

vastated by hordes of northern barbarians, called Cimmerians, who had been expelled from their original seats by the Scythians. Their ravages were continued for about half a century: but they were finally driven out by Alyat'tes, the grandson of Ar'dys. Encouraged by his success against the Cimmerians, Alyat'tes endeavored to check the growing power of the Medes, and for six years waged war against Cyax'ares. The contest was at length about to be decided by a great battle, when a total eclipse of the sun so terrified both armies in the midst of the fight, that they separated in consternation (B. c. 601). This remarkable eclipse was predicted by Tháles of Milétus, and is the first recorded to have been calculated by astronomers.

Cræ'sus, the son and successor of Alyat'tes, subdued all the Grecian states in Asia Minor, and extended his empire on the eastern side to the river Hálys. The magnificence of his court at Sardis attracted visiters from different countries; but Cro'sus was more anxious to entertain philosophers and men of learning from Greece. The illustrious Sólon was once his guest, and with honorable freedom refused to declare Cro'sus perfectly happy until he knew the termination of his career. The Lydian monarch was deeply offended; but ere long he had reason to admire the wisdom of the Athenian sage. Seduced by the pretended oracles of Délphi, he waged war against the rising Persian empire; but was defeated by Cy'rus, and taken prisoner. Being sentenced to death by the barbarous victor, he exclaimed, when placed on the funeral pile, "O Sólon, Sólon!" Cy'rus asked the meaning of this invocation; and was so struck by the impressive example of the philosopher's wisdom, that he not only spared the life of Croe'sus, but made him his friend and counsellor (B. c. 549).

Lydia, and the rest of Asia Minor, remained subject to the Persian empire until the time of Alexander the Great.

SECTION III-Syria.-Geographical Outline.

THE name of Syria was loosely given by the Greeks, as that of A'ram was by the Hebrews, not only to the country now called by that name, but also to Mesopotámia and part of Asia Minor; but it is properly restricted to the region between Mount Am'anus on the north, the Euphrátes on the east, Arábia on the south, and Phœnícia on the west. It has been variously divided, but the most convenient division is into three unequal portions-Syria Proper, which includes the provinces of Commagéne, Seleúcis, and Cœlé-Syria; Phoenicia and the country of the Philistines; and Palestine, of which we shall treat in a separate chapter.

The principal city of Commagéne was Samosáta on the Euphrátes: there were several trading towns of minor importance, all in the vicinity. Seleúcis was adorned with many splendid cities during the reigns of the successors of Alexander, of which the most remarkable were Antioch and Seleucia. It contained also Hierap'olis, dedicated to the Syrian goddess Beroa, the modern Aleppo, and Heliop'olis (Baal'bec), whose magnificent ruins still attract admiration. Calé-Syria, or Hollow Syria, was so called because it lies between two parallel chains of mountains, Lib'anus and Antilib'anus: it contained Damascus, the