a chair of Grecian literature, the first in the west. A passion for erudition spread from one end of Italy to the other, with an ardour proportionable to the dark ignorance of the preceding centuries. It was imagined that all knowledge consisted in knowing and imitating the ancient masters. The highest glory was attached to classical learning; and Petrarch and Boccaccio attained a degree of celebrity, credit, and power, unequalled by any other men in the middle ages-not by reason of those merits which we feel at the present day, but as the pontiffs and interpreters of antiquity."

"We owe to the learned of the fourteenth century, and to their school, a deep sentiment of gratitude. They discovered and rendered intelligible to us all the chefs d'œuvre of antiquity. Fragments only of classic works remained, scattered throughout Europe, and on the point of being lost. These learned men of Italy collected, collated, and explained them; without their antiquarian zeal, all the experience of past ages, all the models of taste, all the great works of genius, would never have reached us, and probably, without such guides, we should never have attained the point on which we now stand.”5

In thus writing, the author, of course, had in his eye, not only the close of the fourteenth, but the greater part of the fifteenth century, when Italy, in truth, became the garden of literature and the arts, the wonder and delightful resort of the learned throughout Europe. As a fact, it is of importance, not only to concede, but observe this, and let the precedence be fully understood as holding a place in the course of events about to transpire. The learning and refinement of Italy, about to assume that position in history which the wisdom of Greece had done in the days of old, must enjoy her long reign of a hundred and fifty years without any superior. Now that the human mind is waking up, let the Italian "imagine that all knowledge consisted in knowing and imitating the ancient masters," and let "the highest glory be attached to classical learning;" let the

4 The first lecturer was Leo, or Leontius Pilatus, who filled the chair, however, only three years. In returning to Italy by sea, after revisiting Greece, the ship was caught in a tempest. Leo had lashed himself to the mast, but was killed by lightning.-Berington's Middle Ages.

5 SISMONDI. Such is the exultation of the Italian author. At the same time it must be borne in mind, that certain learned men, far to the west, had not been left ignorant at least of the facts recorded in Greek authors. The Arabic translations, and Latin from the Arabic, in the twelfth century, however barbarous in style, might have compensated as to the scientific facts, though the Greek classics had been lost. At least so Scaliger insisted. These were being read, and discover a thirst after Greek science, even in Spain. There the Jew as well as the Saracen had been striving to excel, and it has been remarked by Forster, that as Isaac and Ishmael met together as brethren, at the grave of Abraham, their common father, so, after many ages, the posterity of both had met, not to destroy each other, but to display the full extent of their intellectual power. Under the Caliphs, instead of the canonical policy of proselyting by the sword, both Saracen and Jew were permitted to try the efficacy of the pen. Their career, however, was soon run, and whatever may be said of architecture, as to literature, certainly little or no decided progress was made till the Italians had studied and translated the Greek originals. Then, whatever had been dark or mysterious throughout the middle ages, became clear and defined.

"chief works of antiquity be rendered intelligible," and the men of Italy" collect, collate, and explain them." In short, as Greece is coming to the assistance of Rome, and "the great masters" must first rise to show the extent of their powers; since the former, at the commencement of the Christian era, had stood in a peculiar relation to the surrounding nations-so, let Italy now stand in the same relation to Europe. Distinguished for classical learning, and first in the arts, if not the sciences, she claims to be the well-spring of all the less civilized nations in the west. Minute criticism may here be dispensed with, nor does any admirer of the Sacred Volume need to object to the fullest concession. Let Dante and Petrarch for the moment, and Boccaccio and Poggio Bracciolini lead the way.

In all this, however, it must now be granted in return, there was literally nothing of Divine light, properly so called—no reverent, distinct approach to the Sacred Volume; and this becomes the more observable, as the only country in Europe to which we can look for this, was that which, of all others, was held in greatest contempt by Italy; to say nothing of its being at once the most distant from Rome, if not also the most oppressed by that power. This was no other than our native land. Bracciolini, the last of these Italian scholars, had actually visited it, and viewed this country with chagrin, if not disdain, when compared with the enthusiastic love of classical literature which polished and adorned his country.6

Yes, so far as the revival of learning was concerned, it is worthy of particular notice that, in England, it was associated, even from this early period, with a special leaning towards the Oracles of God, and that on the part of several eminent men, all alike well known, not only at home, but as distant as Italy. Of these, in proof, we cannot omit to notice four-Robert Grossteste, Richard Aungerville, Richard Fitzralph, and, above all, our own WICKLIFFE.

The first of these, indeed, GROSSTESTE, died as early as the year 1253, and, three years before that event, made no scruple, when preaching at Lyon before Innocent IV., to arraign his clergy, in the boldest terms, for their ignorance, and arrogance, and flagitious conduct. Now this was above an hundred years before the erection of Boccaccio's chair for Greek in Florence; and yet certainly Grossteste was not unacquainted with either Greek or Hebrew. He had translated Dionysius the Areopagite 7 and Damascenus into Latin-had facilitated the knowledge of Greek by a translation of Suidas's Lexicon-had promoted John of Basingstoke because he was a Greek scholar, and possessed of Greek manuscripts, which he is said to have brought from Athens. Nicholas, surnamed Græcus, resided with Grossteste, to help him in translating from the Greek; nor should it be forgotten that, however humble might be the claims

6 Shepherd's Life of Poggio, 1802.

7 A spurious book, it is true, and one upon which Grocyn lectured at St. Paul's as genuine, till, examining its authenticity, he discovered his mistake, and then, with becoming candour, openly explained that he had been in error.

of this eminent man to the character of a Grecian, all this happened above a century before that Boccaccio himself had positively asserted of the Italian scholars, that they did not know so much as the Greek alphabet. Nor was Grossteste unacquainted with Hebrew, though we cannot assert, with Wharton, that he was profoundly skilled in it. The number of Jews then in England, as well as of Hebrew manuscripts, fully accounts for what might seem incredible to those who have not looked into the times.8 At this early period, however, the chief eminence of Grossteste arose from his being a decided friend to vernacular translations of the Scriptures. "It is the will of God," said he, "that the Holy Scriptures should be translated by many translators, and that there should be different translations in the Church, so that what is obscurely expressed by one, may be more perspicuously rendered by another."9 Was there any other country in Europe where as much had been expressed by any man, before the middle of the fourteenth century? If not, then let Grossteste or Greathead be allowed to have sounded, if not the first, one of the earliest feeble notes of preparation; though more than a hundred years must pass away before the subject be taken up in good earnest, and though England, confessedly, will first sink into greater barbarism.

RICHARD OF BURY, (son of Sir Richard Aungerville) the Chancellor of England and Bishop of Durham, who died before the middle of the fourteenth century, was a man more to the Italian taste, so far as a passion for literature was concerned. If we allow him to express his own feelings, he was "carried away and even beside himself with immoderate love of books, and desire of reading ;"10 though there was one fault, too much akin to the rest of his order, a desire to monopolize every book to themselves. 11 This man employed collectors not only in England, but in France, Italy, and Germany. Perfectly familiar with French from his residence in that country, at one period he regarded Paris, on account of its literature, as the "paradise of the world ;" at another, he laments over its decline. But he visited Italy also, and there met with Petrarch. The celebrated Italian, indeed, mentions Aungerville in one of his epistles-Virum ardentis ingenii.12

But there was yet another Richard, well known to the last, of a superior character, and far more diffusive spirit. This was FITZRALPH, an Irishman, too, and the energetic precursor of Wickliffe, in opposition to the Friars. Born,

8 From the time of William the Conqueror numbers of Jews had come into England. In the beginning of the twelfth century there were as many as 1500 at York. At Bury, in Suffolk, their synagogue was large. In addition to London, they are mentioned as living at Lincoln, Northampton, and Norwich, at Ramsey, Stamford, and Marlborough, Andover, Derby, and Oxford. Often had they been exposed to wanton cruelty, till at last, in 1290, they were unwisely, as well as barbarously banished by Edward I., when their number amounted to above 16,000. Their residence had been of advantage to the country, if we may judge by a period of only eight years, from December 1265, to February 1274, as given by Sir E. Coke. They had paid to the Crown £420,000, an immense sum in those days. They were branded, indeed, as usurers; but they were not more so than the Italians, who remained here under protection. This banishment, however, we have noticed, because it was favourable to the diffusion of Hebrew manuscripts, many of which fell into the hands of Roger Bacon and other friars. The Abbey of Ramsey was distinguished as a depository. The Hebrew Lexicon, compiled by Holbeach, one of its inmates, was preserved from destruction, in 1536, by Robert Wakefield, the first Professor of Hebrew at Oxford. See Warton, Rapin, and Townley's Biblical Literature.

9 "Deus voluit, ut plures interpretes S. Scripturam transferrent, et diversæ Translationes in ecclesia essent; idcirco ut quod unus obscuriùs dixerat, alter manifestius redderit."-Whartoni Auct. Hist. Dogmat. c. 2, pp. 416-418. See also Townley's Biblical Literature, and Warton's Dissertation, 2.

10" Exstatico quodam librorum amore potenter se abreptum."

11" Laicii omnium librorum communione sunt indigni!"

12 Petrarch says, that he once had a conversation with him respecting the "Ultima Thule" of the ancients, as if he had come from near the end of the earth.

it has been said, at Dundalk, and, at all events, certainly there interred, though he had died at Avignon, Fitzralph, then Primate of Ireland, after preaching indefatigably in that country and in London, had gone to face Innocent VI. himself, on the subject of those exactions and abuses which had become past all endurance. If Aungerville was bent upon collecting and engrossing all books; still farther to the west than even the " Thule" of the Ancients, at the utmost verge of the Pontiff's authority, even in Ireland itself, there was then a thirst after knowledge which could not be satisfied. Fitzralph complained aloud, and told Innocent that "no book could stir, whether in divinity, law, or physic, but these Friars were able and ready to buy it up,""" that he himself had sent four of his secular chaplains from Armagh to Oxford, who sent him word again that they could neither find the BIBLE, nor any other good profitable book in divinity, meet for their study, and therefore were minded to return home to their own country."

As for the Primate himself, by his own account," the Lord had taught him, and brought him out of the profound vanities of Aristotle's philosophy, to the Scriptures of God." "To thee be praise," says he, at the commencement of his life, written by himself, once in the possession of Foxe, and which he meant to have printed,-" To thee be praise, to thee be glory, to thee be thanksgiving, O Jesus most holy, Jesus most powerful, Jesus most amiable-who hast said, 'I am the way, the truth, and the life,'- —a way without deviation, truth without a cloud, and life without end. For thou the way hast shewn me, thou the truth hast taught me, and thou the life hast promised me. A way thou wast to me, in exile, the truth thou wast to me, in counsel, and life thou wilt be to me, in reward.13

Could the assertion which has been often repeated, only be confirmed, that Fitzralph translated the New Testament into the Irish language, or that such a translation existed in his time, it would form one of the most curious facts in the history of modern literature; pointing out Ireland as that country in Europe which had been the first pitied, as it has been the last. 11 But, at all events, in the very same year, or 1360, in which Fitzralph expired at Avignon, John Wickliffe, at the age of thirty-six, was allured from his hitherto retired life; and when he came to write his "Trialogue," he speaks of Fitzralph as having preceded him, in terms of high commendation.15

We have now, however, arrived at a point in history fraught with the deepest interest, and bearing so directly on the subject of the following pages, that it becomes necessary to pause a few moments, and look round. Let Grecian literature, by all means, revive in Italy, for this will be drawn upon, as soon as the proper time arrives; but, in the meanwhile, something else must be accomplished and very

13" Tibi laus, tibi gloria, tibi gratiarum actio, Jesu piissime, Jesu potentissime, Jesu dulcissime; qui dixiste, Ego sum via, veritas et vita.' Via sine devio; veritas sine nubilo, et vita sine termino. Quod tute viam mihi ostendisti; tute veritatem me docuisti; et tute vitam mihi promisisti. Via eras mihi in exilio; veritas eras in consilio; et vita eris mihi in præmio."

14 Archbishop Ussher speaks of certain fragments of such a translation being in existence even in his own time. For various other particulars respecting Fitzralph, the author may refer to his "Historical Sketches of the Native Irish," or to the third edition of that work, entitled, "The Native Irish and their Descendants."

15" Ab Anglorum episcopis conductus Armachanus novem in Avinione conclusiones coram Innocentio 6. et suorum cardinalium cælu, contra fratrum mendicitatem, audacter publicavit Verboque; ac scriptis ad mortem usque defendit.'-Wickliffe's Trialogus, 4to, 1525.

far to the west. The event which took place was not only a marked and powerful one, in relation to England, but it formed the first of a series in Europe, although more than an entire century passed away before the precedent was followed by other countries. We refer to the translation of the entire Sacred Volume into the language spoken by the people. Fragments there had been in several languages, but the present work being complete from Genesis to Revelation, intelligible to the common people of that day, and intended for their express perusal, may be regarded as the first positive instance of its kind in modern Europe. It is, at least, the only one in the fourteenth century upon which we can now lay our hand, no continental nation having any thing similar to produce.

JOHN WICKLIFFE, a native of Yorkshire, was born in the year 1324, and, in 1360, at the age of thirty-six, first came into public view, where he conspicuously remained to the day of his death, or the 31st of December 1384. For his life and opinions we refer to other sources, and must here confine our attention to that work which will ever give the chief distinction to his name.

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Before the commencement of such a design, the position of Wickliffe should be contemplated. To say nothing of the Mahometan and Pagan worlds, two other communities had extended their influence over the nations. Alike opposed to the right of private judgment, and the rising freedom of the human mind, and now equally sunk into a state of unutterable depravity, both had fixed a maligeye on that very book which Wickliffe had determined to give to his country. These two, it is well known, were the Eastern and Western, or the Greek and Latin Churches. Both had not only, and long since, utterly neglected and contemned the Sacred Writings, but both had interdicted their translation into any vernacular tongue. That it was not only unlawful, but injurious, for the people at large to read the Scriptures, had, indeed, for ages, been regarded as an axiom, by all these nations. Nor was this idea left to pass current merely as a received opinion. Not to mention other proofs, more than an hundred and fifty years before Wickliffe had finished his determined purpose, or in the year 1229, at the Council of Toulouse, when forty-five canons were passed and issued for the extinction of heresy and the re-establishment of peace, what were two of those canons? One involved the first court of inquisition, and another the first canon, which forbade the Scriptures to the laity, or the translation of any portion of them into the vulgar tongue. The latter was expressed in very pointed terms.

"We also forbid the laity to POSSESS any of the books of the Old or New Testament, except, perhaps, the Psalter or Breviary for the Divine Offices, or the Hours of the Blessed Virgin, which some, out