occasioned by the fact that the root ends in a d or t sound. To this no second dort sound could be added without lengthening the word by one syllable. To this lengthening (though contrary to the natural tendency of our language to curtailment) we have submitted in some cases; for example, in add, added; print, printed, &c.; but, in other cases, rather than add a syllable, we have dispensed altogether with the inflexion peculiar to the preterit; for example, in cut, cost, hit, &c. (10) Sometimes a final d is changed into t in the preterit; as in bend, bent; spend, spent, &c. Sometimes the syllable is shortened in the preterit for the sake of distinction, as in bleed, bled; feed, fed; read, read; the root is pronunced long, the preterit short as if written red.

2. (11) Another class of these contracted forms has merely a t substituted for a d in their preterits, in accordance with the principle explained in § 40. In these the e which precedes the d in the usual inflexion is omitted, and the t is joined to the final consonant of the root; the vowel sound of the root is also usually shortened, because followed now by two consonants. Examples, dream, dreamt; sleep, slept; deal, dealt, &c. The verb cleave, which would naturally coalesce with the d sound, exchanges its v for an ƒ, and takes t like the rest of these contracts; cleave, cleft.

This last class is not to be considered irregular, since nothing has happened to them, except what follows necessarily from the laws which govern the utterance of sounds. The only really anomalous class of these verbs of the modern conjugation, is that considered under our first remark, viz., beseech, besought; catch, caught, &c.; and even the preterits of these are not so capriciously formed, as might seem at first sight. See more on this subject in Latham's English Language, from which we have borrowed largely in the preceding remarks.

The learner may be questioned in the usual way upon the list given above, asking him to tell the preterit and participle of each verb separately. A much more effectual way of learning these verbs thoroughly, is to write lists of the distinct classes in the manner which we prescribe below in the

exercises.

EXERCISES I., II., III., &c.-Form a complete enumeration from the list of all the verbs of the ancient conjugation, coming under class 1, 2, 3, &c., and afterwards the same with the contracted forms of the

give examples. (10) What changes in sound do some of these undergo without receiving any additional inflexion? Give examples. (11) Describe the second class. Show how their preterits are formed, and give examples.

modern conjugation. Each class to be described, and then the enumeration written after the model of the list-roots, preterits and participles.

Then follows a course of exercises in forming propositions with certain prescribed tenses of a prescribed number of the verbs from the list. By this plan the learner may be made as familiar as we please with these verbs, while he is acquiring practice in the formation of propositions, and in the use of the tenses. Let him be especially enjoined to form propositions with the different tenses of those verbs in which he is most likely to make mistakes; such as come, do, drink, go, lay, lie, see, sit, write, &c. These exercises to be extended according to the wants of the pupil.

MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PRE-
DICATE BY NOUNS.

§ 68. (1) Hitherto we have treated of such modifications of the subjects and predicates of propositions as are effected by a change of the form of the subject noun, or of the verb; namely, the change of the form of the noun, intended to indicate plurality, and the changes of the form of the verb, intended to indicate plurality, person, time, and mode. (2) We now proceed to consider the

MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT NOUN AND VERB EFFECTED BY THE EMPLOYMENT OF COMPLEMENTARY OR MODIFYING WORDS.

(3) Before we introduce any new class of words employed for the purpose of modification, we intend to consider the several modífications of both subject and predicate, effected by the instrumentality of one of the the two classes of words already familiar to the learner-we mean by the instrumentality of nouns. (4) The words belonging to the class of verbs never perform this kind of function. (5) According to the definition we have adopted, verbs are always assertive, and can never alone—or, except as forming the assertive part of an accessory proposition-modify other words.

(6) Nouns are employed in three distinct ways to modify other words; namely, 1st. Without any change of their form, except what they undergo when used as subject nouns; 2d. With an inflected form, distinct from that employed as subject noun; And, 3d. Accom

§ 68. (1) Mention the kind of modifications heretofore treated. (2) What kind do we now propose to consider?

(8) What special class of these modifications comes first under notice? (4) Do verbs over perform the function of modifying other words? (5) Tell why they are not employed alone for the purpose of modification?

(6) Mention the three distinct ways in which nouns are employed for the purpose of

panied by a word which serves as an intermediate to the complementary noun and the word which it completes, and forms an essential part of the complement. (7) Each of these classes of complements formed by nouns we shall treat separately. (8) And, first, the

MODIFICATIONS EFFECTED BY THE EMPLOYMEnt of the Noun

IN THE SAME FORMS-SINGULAR AND PLURAL-AS WHEN IT SERVES AS SUBJECT NOUN OF A PROPOSITION.

(9) REMARK. For convenience sake we may call the noun modified the PRINCIPAL NOUN.

§ 69. (1) THE NOUN IN APPOSITION MODIFICATION OR COMPLEMENT. (2) This form of modification is restricted to nouns, or to words or phrases taken substantively. It is never applied to verbs. (3) It consists of another noun apposed—that is, placed to or by the principal noun. (4) The noun in apposition usually expresses some attribute-something descriptive—or some appellation of that which is signified by the principal noun. (5) It is the addition of another name applicable to the object designated by the principal noun, generally for the purpose of rendering the expression more clear and definite, but sometimes merely for the purpose of ornament or of emphasis. Example: (6) William, the FARMER, is an honest man. Here the noun farmer is apposed, or placed by the noun William, to render the subject of the assertion more clear and definite. (7) This apposition indicates that the subject of our assertion, in the present instance, is not any man whatever called William, but the particular person to whom both the name William and the name farmer are applicable—the man known to the person whom we address as, The farmer.

[(8) This modification is most frequently, though not exclusively, applied to the proper names of persons and places. (9) It is applied to nouns, whether they serve as subject noun of a proposition, or are employed in any of the functions to be hereafter described. (10) Per

modifying words. (7) How is it proposed to treat these several forms of modification? (8) Which special division is considered first? (9) Repeat remark.

§ 69. (1) What name is given to the modification first treated? (2) To what class of words is this modification restricted? (3) Of what does it consist? (4) What does it express? (5) State the additional explanation. (6) Give example, and point out the apposition. (7) What does the apposition complement in this case indicate?

[(8) To what class of nouns is this modification most frequently applied? (9) Is it applied only to nouns employed as subjects of propositions, or to nouns whatever may be their

haps the only exception is, that it would be improper, or at least inelegant, to modify a noun itself placed in apposition by another noun in apposition, thus adding apposition to apposition.]

(11) The noun in apposition is most generally, though not always, placed after the noun which it modifies. In such expressions as My brother William, General Washington, &c., the nouns brother and general are the modifying nouns, and precede the nouns with which they stand in apposition.*

[(12) In languages which have case terminations, the noun in apposition must be in the same case with the principal noun. (13) In English it does not always take the case termination of the principal noun, as will be seen hereafter. (See § 75: 26, 27.)†

*It may be doubted whether in such examples as General Washington, Queen Victoria, &c., the modifying word should not be called a noun adjectively employed. There is often not much difference between the two forms of modification; but the noun employed adjectively, as we shall see, can generally be resolved into some other form of modification, made by the case of a noun, or by a noun and preposition, from which modification it is contracted; but the noun in apposition can be resolved into no other form but that of an adjective accessory proposition; and in this, such modifications as general, in the expression General Washington, are like other nouns in apposition. The word general cannot be resolved into a genitive case modification, a noun and preposition modification, an adjective modification, &c., but only into a modification formed by an accessory proposition, as Washington, who was general.

It may be here observed, that this species of modification effects very nearly the same purpose which is effected by an adjective modification. The noun in apposition is necessarily a common noun or name of a class, and not only denotes objects of its kind, but at the same time connotes (as the logicians say) the distinguishing qualities and characteristics of the class. Hence, when placed in apposition with another noun, it serves to indicate the presence of these connoted qualities or characteristics. For example, when I use the expression, Plato, the philosopher, the noun in apposition, philosopher, indicates that the Plato intended was the one who possessed the characteristies, properties, attributes of a philosopher-the person distinguished from all others of the name, by the possession of these attributes, &c. It would be incorrect, however, to say that the noun thus used becomes an adjective.

function? (10) Is there any exception ?] (11) Where is the noun in apposition placed? [(12) What is said of the noun in apposition in languages which have case terminations? (13) In English does it always take the case termination of the principal noun ?] (14) What