STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.

[§ 93. you going? ungrammatical. The proper old forms of expression, Come hither, Go thither, Whither are you going? seem likely to become altogether obsolete, especially in colloquial discourse. It is a misfortune to lose the useful distinction which the employment of hither, thither, &c., affords us; but in matters of language mankind in our day seem to regard their ears more than their intellect-sound more than sense; and the ears decide the question against these rough northern terminations in ther.

Hence, means from this place; Thence, from that place, &c., without the employment of a preposition. Most grammarians declare against From hence, From whence, &c., as improper forms of expression. Yet these forms are found in our best authors, and even in the pages of those who denounce them as ungrammatical. In colloquial discourse, they are constantly used. There not the same apology for this abuse as for that mentioned above. From hence is no improvement as regards sound, compared with hence. And the expression introduces a grammatical anomaly—an adverb preceded by a preposition. The abuse has arisen from regarding hence as a noun meaning this place. Perhaps it really is a noun with something like a case ending, im plying the same sense as the preposition from, and which, like other cases, has been unable to maintain itself in the conflict with the noun and preposition form of modification. Hence we come to employ from before hence, as before other nouns, not regarding the fact that its form already implies the force of from. The resistance to this abuse has not yet been relinquished by those who aim at correctness in writing and speaking, and we think should not be relinquished.

The reader will please observe the analogical formation of the above adverbs of place—a beauty not often met in the English of the present day. This uniformity will be more clearly seen under the following arrangement.

This place.

In.

Here,

To.

Towards.

Hither,
Hitherward,

Thitherward, Whitherward?

§ 93. DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF ADVERBS.—(1) Some of the adverbs may be regarded as primitive words, since they are always employed in the present use of the language as adverbs, and are not derived from any other known word. These, however, form but a small proportion of this very extensive class of words, and even these were probably at an earlier date nouns or adjectives. We give as examples, Here, there, then, now.

§ 93. (1) What is said of primitive adverbs? Give examples.

(2) A large proportion of our adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives, by adding the termination ly; as, from virtuous is formed the adverb virtuously; from wise, wisely, &c. (3) An adverb of this sort may be accounted an abbreviated method of expressing the adjective which it involves, together with the word manner, preceded by the preposition in. Thus, Virtuously—In a virtuous manner, Wisely—In a wise manner, &c.

(4) The adverbs of order are also formed by adding ly to the several ordinal numbers, second, third, fourth, &c. Adverbs, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. Firstly has also been sometimes used, but instead of this form we now employ first, both as ordinal adjective and adverb of order. Secondly, thirdly, &c., are equivalent

to In the second place, In the third place, &c.

[(5) The termination ly has come to us from the Anglo-Saxon lice, from which has descended our word like. (6) It may be observed here that the Anglo-Saxons formed many of their adjectives by adding the termination lic to nouns; and adverbs by adding lice to adjectives. (7) In our language the distinction between lic and lice has been lost, and both are represented by ly. (8) For example, from the nouns God, man, ghost, king, world, &c., we form the adjectives godly, manly, ghostly, kingly, worldly, &c. And from the adjectives just, gracious, generous, &c., the adverbs justly, graciously, generously, &c.; completely confounding the terminations expressive of the adjective and the adverbial meanings. We find, however, little difficulty in distinguishing these classes of words by their functions. (9) We may also generally distinguish the adverb by the fact that it is formed from an adjective; though a few words formed from nouns by the addition of ly, are employed both as adjectives and adverbs; as daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, &c. These may be classed with adjectives adverbially employed. (10) From the adjective good we have formed goodly employed as an adjective, and not as an adverb.]

(11) There are some irregularities in the formation of these adverbs

(2) How are many of the adverbs of manner formed? Examples. (3) How may such adverbs be considered? Example.

(4) What is said of the formation of adverbs of order? Examples.

[(5) Repeat what is said of the origin of the termination ly. (6) What is said of the manner in which some adjectives and adverbs were formed in Anglo-Saxon? (7) Has the distinction observed in Anglo-Saxon been retained in English? (8) Illustrate by examples. (9) How can we usually distinguish an adjective ending in ly from an adverb having the same termination? (10) Mention an exception.]

(11) Repeat what is said of the irregularity in the formation of adverbs from adjectives

in ly. From adjectives ending in le, adverbs are formed by omitting the final e and adding y. Thus from able, is formed ably, from simple, simply, &c. These may be regarded as contracted and softened forms, for the more uncouth words, ablely, simplely, &c. (12) When the adjective ends in e, the e is often omitted; as, due, duly, true, truly. Here the e is preceded by a vowel. When it is preceded by consonant, it is generally retained; as, sole, solely, servile, servilely, &c., but whole, makes wholly. When the adjective ends in 77, one 7 is omitted in the adverb; as, full, fully, &c. But these are matters of spelling rather than of grammar.

EXERCISES.-Give examples of adverbs formed from adjectives. Adjectives from nouns.

(13) We may here notice that many words recognised as adverbs, are compounded of two or more words, which, separately taken, form some one of the species of modifications already treated. We have examples in Therefore for this; Where-with- with which; In-deed, Never-the-less — never in the less degree, degree or some such word being implied. In therefore and wherefore, THING, or some such noun is also implied.

(14) Many words compounded with the abbreviated preposition a have been classed by the grammarians among the adverbs; such as, abed, aloft, ashore, aground, &c. These words, we think, are seldom, if ever, used as adverbs. If we do not analyze them as noun and preposition modifications, but treat them as single words, they are not adverbs, but adjectives employed, generally, as complementary of neuter verbs.* (15) We may illustrate this by the example, He lies abed.

* All words like these which modify verbs have been thrown by the grammarians into the class of adverbs, because they have not adverted to the fact that many verbs are modified by adjectives, but consider all single words with the exception of objective nouns as adverbs when they are employed to modify verbs. It will be seen from what we have already said that this view cannot be maintained; that on the contrary there are several verbs which rarely admit an adverbial modification, but freely take a complementary adjective. The verb to be is an example, and most verbs which express the state or posture of the subject; as, to stand, to lie, to sit, &c.

in le, and give examples. (12) Repeat remarks as to those formed from adjectives onding in e preceded by a vowel, and in e preceded by a consonant. Give the examples.

(13) Repeat what is said of adverbs formed of words which separately taken constituto one of the modifications already considered. Illustrate by examples.

(14) What is said of certain words formed with the preposition a? Give examples (15) Illustrate the assertion that these compounds are not adverbs, using for this purpose as an example, He lies abed.

The 2

Here we must either say that abed is equivalent to on bed-noun and preposition modification-or that it is an adjective compounded of these words. Surely abed, taken as a single word, is as much an adjective, when we say, He lies abed, or He is abed, as flat is an adjective, when we say, He lies flat, or The roof is flat. The same reasoning will apply to asleep, aloft, ashore, &c., in the propositions He is asleep, or He lies asleep; The ship is ashore, or lies ashore; The bird rises aloft, or sings aloft, &c.

(16) Many adjectives are employed in our language adverbiallygenerally as adverbs of manner-some noun being suppressed which the mind of the hearer is expected to supply. We may give as examples of adjectives often so employed the words better, best, worse, worst; as, He acted better, best, worse worst-expressions equivalent to He acted in a better manner, in the best manner, &c. (17) The employment of adjectives as adverbs is more common in some languages than it is in ours. In German, for instance, "all adjectives are employed as adverbs of manner, without assuming any distinctive termination like the English ly." (Becker's Germ. Gram. for the English, p. 162, Frank. 1845.)

(18) It often happens that an adjective preceded by a preposition is used adverbially. Examples: In vain—In a vain manner; In short In a short way, or manner; In general-In a general way, or mannor. In some cases the ellipsis cannot be so easily supplied. For example, at least, at most, at all, &c. In such expressions a whole proposition is sometimes left to be supplied by the hearer or reader; and what proposition, or what words, we must ascertain in each particular case from the connection of the discourse. The easiest (though certainly not the most satisfactory) way of treating such abbreviated expressions is to call them, as the grammarians generally have done, adverbial phrases.

EXERCISES.-Propositions containing what are called adverbial phrases; always supply the noun in analysis.

(19) It may be observed, once for all, that it is a lazy and unphilosophical practice to treat every word, which expresses a circumstance modifying the predicate of a proposition, and which happens to be somewhat difficult to analyze fully and correctly, as an adverb, or, if more than one word, as an adverbial phrase. (20) The proper, the only

(16) What is said of adjectives employed in our language as adverbs of manner? Illustrate by examples. (17) What is said of the practice in other languages of employing the unchanged adjective as an adverb?

(18) Repeat what is said of (the so-called) adverbial phrases, illustrating by examples. (19) Describe a practice characterized as lazy and unphilosophical (20) What is repre

rational method of analysis, is to treat as an adverb no expression which can be readily brought under any of the other classes of modifications. (21) Adverbs are only contracted or abbreviated forms equivalent to other modifications, and every one, in order to show that he thoroughly understands the analysis of language, must be able to exhibit in every case the expression to which the adverb is equivalent, or which it represents. (22) To call any expression an adverb, or an adverbial phrase, which admits of being directly brought under one of the other forms of modification, is therefore wholly unwarrantable and improper.

(23) In consistency with these remarks we cannot admit that such words as yesterday, to-day, to-night, to-morrow, belong to the class of adverbs. Yesterday is a compound noun formed by the union of an adjective, now obsolete (save in composition), with the noun day. The same observation applies to the expressions to-day, to-night, tomorrow. Whatever may have given origin to the use of the particle to in this manner before the words day, night, &c., this particle, as here used, is now manifestly equivalent to the determinative this. Compare, I will go to-day, and I will go this week. Such expressions we analyze as nouns-nouns performing the function of the accusative of time. (See § 84.)

(24) There are several words commonly classed among the adverbs which do not come, as it seems to us, within any definition which has been given of this species of words. One of these is the negative particle NOT. This can scarcely, with propriety, be called a modifying word. Whether we consider it as affecting, exclusively, the assertive force of the verb, or as affecting the predicate (including the part of the predicate contained in the verb), it cannot, in strict propriety of language, be said to modify that which it serves rather completely to reverse or exclude. We prefer to call it by a name peculiar to itself, the negative particle.

NOTE. It is a question among logicians, whether the negative particle in all cases affects the copula? whether, consequently, we are to admit two forms of the copula, viz, the affirmative form, employed in what are called affirmative propositions, and the negative form in negative propositions? or,

sented as the proper and rational method of analysis? (21) What are adverbs here said to be, and what should we be able to exhibit in analysis when an adverb occurs? (22) What mode of analysis is said to be unwarrantable and improper ?

(23) Enumerate some forms of expression commonly called adverbs of time, and give the reasons for excluding them from this class.

(24) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to the word NOT.