We shall have more to say of these forms elsewhere, especially when we come to treat of the relative or conjunctive pronouns, and in additional remarks on the determinatives and the pronouns, §§ 158, 159.

EXERCISE I.-Form a given number of interrogative propositions with interrogative words for their subject nouns.

EXERCISE II.—A given number commencing with an interrogative pronoun which does not serve as subject noun.

EXERCISE III.-A given number commencing with an interrogative adverb.

EXERCISES IV., V., &c.-A given number of interrogative propositions formed without interrogative words.

§ 99. OF IMPERATIVE PROPOSITIONS.-(1) As regards matter, the imperative proposition is distinguished by the fact that it is employed in expressing commands, requests, entreaties, &c. (2) As regards form, it is distinguished by the following peculiarities-1st. The imperative form, or mode of the verb, consisting in our language of the root without inflection, is employed in this class of propositions. 2d. The subject of such propositions in the prose language of the present day, is always of the second person; that is, always a party or parties addressed. 3d. The subject noun, being always the pronoun of the second person singular or the second person plural, and capable of being readily supplied, is most commonly suppressed. 4th. When the pronoun is expressed, it is placed after the verb. (3) The suppression in the one case, and the arrangement after the verb in the other case, equally serve to distinguish the imperative from the assertive form. (4) When the pronoun is placed after the verb the plural imperative proposition does not differ in form from the plural interrogative proposition in the indefinite tense, so far as the words and arrangement are concerned. Thus, resist you, or ye, evil, may form either a question or a command-an interrogative or an imperative proposition. (5) In speaking, the tone of command or entreaty is clearly distinct from the tone or inflection of inquiry. This fact prevents all mistake of the one form for the other in

§ 99. (1) What is said of the matter of the imperative proposition? (2) Repeat separately the four peculiarities which distinguish the imperative proposition. (3) What two circumstances distinguish the imperative from the assertive proposition? (4) With what other kind of proposition does the plural imperative sometimes agree in form, and in what case? Give an example. (5) In this case how are these two kinds of propositions distinguished in spoken discourse? How in written discourse?

spoken discourse. The mark of interrogation serves to distinguish the interrogative form in written discourse.

(6) Some imperative propositions, having a subject of the third person, occur in our older writers and in the poets. In these the subject noun is expressed, and generally placed after the verb. For examples of these antiquated and poetical imperative propositions, see § 55, p. 112.

We subjoin a few examples of imperative propositions for an exercise in analysis.

(7) "Fret not thyself because of evil men." "Honor thy father and thy mother." "Hear the instruction of thy father." "Forsake not the law of thy mother." "Drink waters out of thine own cistern." 'Buy the truth; sell it not." "Get wisdom, get understanding." Show me your exercise. Be courteous to all. "Reveal none of the secrets of thy friend. Be faithful to his interests. Forsake him not in danger. Abhor the thought of acquiring any advantage by his prejudice."

(8) EXAMPLES WITH THE PRONOUN EXPRESSED.- "Despise not thou the chastening of the Almighty." "Blessed be thou," &c. "Be thou an example," &c. "Be not thou ashamed of the testimony," &c. "Go ye therefore," &c.

EXERCISE.-Form a given number of imperative propositions.

(9) We may here remark that the vocative, or noun of address, is very often used in connection with this form of proposition. For examples of the vocative in this connection, we may take the following propositions: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways." "My son, forget not my law."

"Daughter of Faith, awake! arise! illume

The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb."-Campbell.

(10) These VOCATIVES, or nouns, employed in addressing or calling on the party to which our discourse is directed, do not form any part of a proposition, though they stand alongside, or sometimes in the middle of it, and therefore they admit of no grammatical analysis. It is the mere utterance of a name for the sake of indicating the party whom we address, or for the purpose of arresting his attention. It is often

(6) Repeat the remark about imperatives having a subject of the third person. (7) Give examples of imperative propositions in which the subject pronoun is suppressed. (8) Give a few examples having the pronoun expressed.

(9) Repeat what is said of the use of the vocative or case of address; and give examples. (10) Repeat the remarks in reference to the function which vocatives serve in discourse.

used, as in the quotation from Campbell, in solemn and emphatic invocation. (11) The noun or pronoun thus employed is often accompanied, as in the examples above, by the usual modifications of nouns, by adjectives, by nouns in apposition, by noun and preposition modifications. (12) In the example above, "Thou sluggard," and in similar cases, it may be doubted whether sluggard is to be considered a noun apposed to thou, or thou as a sort of determinative giving greater emphatic force to sluggard.

(13) The vocative is also often used before interrogative propositions to arrest the attention of the party whom we interrogate. For example:

"Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?"-Beattie.

It is also employed for the same purpose before assertive propositions. For example: "Son, thou art ever with me," &c.

(14) The vocative, having no grammatical dependence on the accompanying proposition, is usually in printed books separated from the rest of the discourse by commas. (15) In analysis all that the grammarian has to do with these vocatives is to assign them their name, keeping them separate from the proposition, and to describe the manner in which they happen to be modified.

We have now finished what we have to say on the construction and analysis of propositions, whose subject noun and verb are only modified by single words-not by other propositions. It is possible that the learner may meet with forms of expression in simple propositions which the preceding pages will not enable him to analyze satisfactorily. Such expressions, we think, will rarely occur in pure and dignified composition. He who has made himself completely master of the system of analysis here taught, will generally be able to discover for himself a method of explaining any construction which we may have overlooked. We believe that by the help of this method of analysis the learner may explain, in a rational manner, all the constructions accounted for in the syntax of other grammars (except those involving relative pronouns), and a number of constructions besides which these grammarians do not satisfactorily explain.

The student of grammar should bear in mind that the first-the most important step in attempting the analysis of difficult constructions, is to supply correctly all words omitted by ellipsis, and complete the structure

(11) What is said of the modifications of which vocatives are susceptible? Illustrate this by the examples above. (12) What remark is made in reference to the example, "Thou sluggard ?"

(13) Is the vocative introduced before other kinds of propositions, and if so, for what purpose? (14) What is the rule of punctuation in reference to vocatives? Tell the reason of the rule. (15) What is to be done when we meet with vocatives in analysis?

of the proposition. The whole difficulty in analysis often arises from abbreviated forms of expression. In such cases, when the construction is filled up, the difficulty vanishes.

Another class of difficulties may be traced to what we have called the insensible extension of a usage in construction. This often gives rise to idiomatic expressions which cannot be satisfactorily explained without reference to the history of the language. Cases of this kind do not come within the scope of an elementary treatise on grammar. It is well to advert to the most important and the most current of these idiomatic expressions; but as the grammarian cannot reach them by laying down general principles, he must discuss each separately, and since they are numerous, he cannot hope to explain them all. Much here, as well as in the case of abbreviated expressions, must be left to the ingenuity of the learner. Good sense and a careful study of the grammatical contrivances of language, will enable him to surmount most difficulties. Continual practice in analysis will secure facility and readiness in supplying ellipses and developing abbreviated expressions.

It must not be thought that by this species of exercise the student is merely learning words, as is vulgarly supposed; he is, on the contrary, learning the art of interpreting and expressing thought. He is learning to think accurately, whilst he is learning to express thought accurately. It is not with that part of grammar which relates to the construction of language to serve as a convenient vehicle of thought, as with the learning of the mere forms and inflections of words. This latter is commonly thought a very barren and unprofitable study; and so it is, if we confine our grammatical learning to mere forms and inflections. But the construction of language, to which these forms and inflections are subservient, is one of the noblest arts of which we are possessed, and, if the work of man's intellect, one of its greatest, if not its very greatest achievement. It claims the highest admiration as a display of human ingenuity, and the highest estimation as the most valuable of all contrivances. It is worthy of the most careful study, as connected with all the operations of thought-with the acquisition, the retention, and the communication of all the varied products of man's intellectual energies.

§ 100. In closing what we have to say upon modifications consisting of single words, it may be useful to present a synoptical table of all the forms of modification, which we have separately considered, classing them in reference to the kind of words they are used to complete.

The several kinds of words susceptible of modification are: 1st, nouns, including pronouns and verbal nouns; 2d, verbs; 3d, adjectives, including verbal adjectives or participles; and 4th, adverbs. In regard to verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, it has been already

observed that they are susceptible of some of the peculiar modifications both of nouns and of verbs. To avoid unnecessary repetition, we form our table irrespective of this peculiarity of the verbals. We exclude them from our consideration in the mean time, that we may not be compelled to repeat (to the confusion of the learner) nearly all the peculiar complements of the verbs under the head of nouns; and at the close the student may be reminded that these verbal words, because of their serving the function of nouns on the one hand, and expressing a common meaning with predicates on the other, take part at least of the modifications of both classes of words.

In the following table, it will be observed that we pursue a different order of arrangement, from that adopted in the preceding pages. We now present the several modifications in the order of their importance, determined chiefly by the comparative frequency of their recurrence in discourse. We do not however pledge ourselves to any very scrupulous examination of the question of relative importance where there might be a doubt which of two modifications has the preponderance, since such nice discrimination is altogether unnecessary to our purposes. Our only aim is to give precedence to those forms of modification which recur so often, and are so indispensable to complete certain kinds of words, that they claim the special regard of the learner.

We prefix a number to each modification of each class, which, together with the letters, N., V., A., and Adv. for noun, verb, adjec tive, and adverb, may serve to denote them in written analyses, or references for any other purpose. We also annex to each modification the number of the section in which it is explained.

This tabular view, it will be observed, is intended to exhibit those modifications only which consist of separate words, and not those which are effected by means of a change of the form of the modified word, such as plural forms, case forms, tense forms, and comparison expressed by inflection, &c.