sonified things and abstractions. (18) Which is now used only to represent nonpersonals, that is, irrational animals and things inanimate.

(19) It is also used to represent collective nouns (though signifying assemblages of persons), when they imply unity. The collective body, considered as a unit, though made up of persons, is not regarded as a person. Examples: The PARTY WHICH first elevated him to power has since denounced him. The ARMY, WHICH he led to victory, was strongly attached to him. (20) Which is also used to represent nouns signifying persons, when only the word, or name, or character is referred to, not the person. Examples: You call him an OPPRESSOR of the poor and the weak, wmcn is the worst name you could give him. "That was the work of Herod, which is but another name for cruelty."

(21) In the earlier usage of our language, which was employed to represent persons as well as nonpersonals. (22) Thus it is employed in the Lord's Prayer in the authorized version, and in the versions of Tyndale and Cranmer, and in those published at Geneva and at Rheims. Our father which art in heaven. (28) The distinction established in the present usage of our language between who and which contributes to perspicuity. Who and whom always by their very form indicate that the reference is to the names of persons, and which that the reference is to nonpersonals-to animals or inanimate things.

may

(24) That is used to represent the names both of persons and things. It be considered as the universal relative or conjunctive pronoun, filling the place of both who and which. (25) But as the use of who or which gives greater clearness to the reference, the one limiting it to persons, the other to nonpersonals, the employment of these words is to be preferred, except where their frequent recurrence, or some awkwardness of expression connected with their use renders the employment of the less definite that preferable. (See additional observations on the pronouns wно, WHICH, THAT, § 159.)

[The grammarians have enumerated certain cases in which the use of that is to be preferred to the use of who or which. We give the substance of what they have said, partly in the language of Dr. Crombie and Dr. Bullions.

the names of animals or things? (18) How is which now used? (19) Does which ever represent nouns signifying persons? Give examples. (20) In what other case is it so used? Give examples.

(21) What is said of the use of who and which in the earlier period of our language? (22) Mention the example. (23) Is the distinction now observed between who and which

useful?

(24) What is said of that? (25) What reason for preferring the use of who or which in general to the use of that as a conjunctive pronoun ?

(26) 1st. That is used after who or which (either conjunctive or interrogative) has been already employed in the sentence to avoid a disagreeable repetition of the same sound. But this change from who or which to that ought not to be admitted in a series of accessory propositions modifying the same noun; the same antecedent ought to be always represented in such a series by the same pronoun. Thus it would be improper to say, The man THAT fears God, and wпo loves his neighbor. We ought to employ either who in both cases, or that in both cases.

2d. That is usually employed to represent nouns mcdified by adjectives in the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that ever lived." Also to represent nouns modified by the words same, all, very; and generally to represent those modified by the determinative adjectives any, no, some.

3d. When the conjunctive is to represent two antecedent nouns, the one signifying persons and the other nonpersonals, that is employed; as "the man and the horse that passed us."

4th. That is sometimes employed, when it is doubtful whether who or which is the proper word; as, "The little child that was placed in the midst.]

§ 111. We now return to the consideration of the adjective accessory proposition, and the various functions, besides that of connecting, which the conjunctive words perform in it. It will be more convenient, after illustrating the use of these chief conjunctive pronouns, to consider the other words which serve purposes somewhat similar.

(1) Adjective accessory propositions perform functions similar both to descriptive and determinative adjectives. (2) That is to say, in other words, propositions of this kind are employed either to describe the object expressed by the noun which they modify, or to render the object more determinate—or, still in other words, either to express an attribute belonging to the object, or to indicate the manner in which the speaker chooses to limit the modified name (See § 91: 11, et seq.)

(3) We subjoin examples of both kinds of accessories for the purpose

[(26) Mention the first case in which the use of that conjunctive is to be preferred. The second case, &c.]

§ 111. (1) What two kinds of functions do adjective accessories perform? (2) Express these functions in different ways. (3) Illustrate these functions by examples.

of illustration. The man WHO IS ALWAYS IDLE is a burden to himself, and useless to the community. The accessory proposition "who is always idle” is here descriptive of" the man." The boy WHO STANDS FOREMOST is the son of our friend. Here who stands foremost is an accessory employed not to describe, but to determine. It expresses no attribute belonging to the boy, but simply indicates to the hearer what boy the speaker intends.

[(4) We might divide descriptive accessory propositions into two classes, one including those which describe an object by predicating one of its inherent qualities, another, those which describe the object by predicating of it a particular action. (5) The first class corresponds with the descriptive adjective, the latter with the participle employed to modify nouns. (6) The first class is formed by the employment of the verb to be with a descriptive adjective, the second by the use of the other verbs, or of the verb to be with a participle. (7) The man WHO IS IDLE is a burden to himself, is an example of the first class; The man WHO CONSTANTLY LABORS TO DO GOOD deserves universal approbation, is an example of the second. (8) But it is scarcely necessary in grammatical analysis to attend to a distinction like this, which has reference to the subject matter rather than to the form of the accessory proposition. (9) We notice it here merely to show the close analogy subsisting between this whole class of accessories and the different kinds of adjective modifications.*]

That the function which this kind of accessory performs is the same with that which the adjective performs, may be shown more directly by selecting cases in which an accessory proposition and a corresponding adjective form equivalent, or nearly equivalent modifications. For example: The steward WHO IS FAITHFUL deserves commendation, and, The FAITHFUL steward deserves commendation are nearly equivalent expressions. The first of these modes of expression is more formal, more stiff, and, when it is wished to call special attention to the description, more emphatic. This species of modifica tion (by an accessory) likely had place in language before adjectives were employed attributively. We suspect that the adjective modification is a refinement on the adjective accessory modification-a mere abbreviation of the accessory, always implying a suppressed predication. In the present usage of language, when we have a descriptive adjective to express an attribute, we generally employ it attributively-without the formality of predication; except when it is necessary for some reason to give peculiar force to the

[(4) Into what classes might adjective accessories be divided? (5) Tell with what each class corresponds. (6) Tell how each class is formed. (7) Illustrate by examples (8) Is it necessary to give attention to this distinction in grammatical analysis? (9) Why have we noticed it in this place?]

We have given examples of accessories with the conjunctive who for subject; we now subjoin examples of the use of which and that for the same purpose. (10) "That landscape which fills the traveller with rapture, is regarded with indifference by him who sees it every day from his window." "The sweetest sounds that art can combine, lose much of their effect upon an ear that (which) is perpetually listening to melody." "The most costly luxuries that can load the board of opulence, are but bread to him who makes them his daily meal."

"The brilliant lustres that (better which) illuminate the house of public entertainment, are no more than sober daylight to him who passes all his evenings there." (11) The accessory propositions intended for illustration we have marked by the use of italics.

(12) REMARK.-The learner may, observe that the author has employed that on two occasions, with great propriety, to represent an antecedent modified by a superlative; “The sweetest sounds that,” and "The most costly luxuries that." In other places he has employed that where which was perhaps to be preferred.

(13) The accessory propositions, which we have marked above, all serve to modify the subject noun of the principal proposition. (14) But an accessory of this kind may be used to modify a noun which is itself employed in a subordinate function, as a complement of the subject or predicate of the principal proposition. (15) Of this we have examples in the passages introduced above as examples. The accessories, "Who sees it every day from his window," "That is perpetually listening to melody," "Who makes them his daily meal," and, "Who passes all his evenings there," all modify noun with preposition complements; namely, the first, third and fourth him preceded by a preposition, and the second an ear preceded also by a preposition. (17) In a word, the adjective accessory proposition, like the adjective, may be employed to modify a noun, in whatever function that noun may be employed, whether in a principal or in an accessory proposition. (18) It modification, and then we can employ the accessory. But when we have to describe a person, or any object by an action, we are generally obliged to have recourse to an adjective accessory proposition.

(10) Give examples of accessories with which and that for their subject nouns. (11) How is the part of each passage above intended for illustration marked? (12) Repeat the

substance of the remark.

(13) For what purpose do the accessories in italics serve? (14) Are accessories of this kind used for other purposes? And what purposes? (15) Illustrate by examples from the passages quoted already. (17, Sum up the purposes for which the adjective accessory may be employed. (18) Repeat the substance of the caution.

is, however, contrary to the principles of good taste-destructive both of perspicuity and harmony-to employ these accessories too lavishly in the modification of nouns used in accessory propositions; especially in accessory propositions connected themselves to their principal by a conjunctive pronoun.

EXERCISES I., II., &c.—Write compound propositions of the above

form.

§ 112. ACCESSORIES IN WHICH THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN PERFORMS A MODIFYING FUNCTION.-(1) Hitherto we have called attention only to the cases in which the conjunctive pronoun serves as subject noun of the accessory proposition. (2) We have now to observe that conjunctive pronouns perform not only the function of subject noun, but also most of the other functions of nouns in the accessory adjective proposition. (3) They perform the several functions of objective modification, of genitive or possessive modification, of man and preposition modification, and sometimes, perhaps, of dative modification.

We call attention first to examples of the conjunctive or relative pronoun (as it is most commonly called) employed as objective modification to the verb in the accessory proposition. (4) I am much pleased with the gentleman WHOM you introduced. The book WHICH you bought is superior to mine. Or, The book THAT you bought is superior to mine. "They follow an adventurer whom they fear, and obey a power which they hate; we serve a monarch whom we love,"-(we serve) "a God whom we adore."

REMARK. (5) In this form of the adjective accessory proposition, the objective conjunctive pronoun is often suppressed, especially in colloquial discourse. (This suppression is more common in our language than in any other which we know.) (6) Thus we may say, The book you bought yesterday is beautiful, The man we saw this morning, instead of The book WHICH you bought, and The man WHOM we saw, &c. (7) In proceeding to the analysis of such accessory propositions, it is proper that the suppressed conjunctive accusative should be first supplied. (8) The suppression of a conjunctive pronoun, when it serves

§ 112. (1) To what use of the conjunctive pronoun has our attention been confined? (2) Does the pronoun perform other functions in accessory propositions? (3) Enumerate the modifying functions which it performs.

(4) Illustrate the objective use of the pronoun by examples.

(5) Repeat the substance of the remark. (6) Illustrate the fact stated in the remark by examples. (7) What is recommended in the analysis of accessory propositions? (8) What is