(12) When we wish to express alternation, or propose a choice of assertions with greater emphasis, we employ the word EITHER before the propositions, bosides using or to connect them. Thus, EITHER John OR William is mistaken. (13) Some call EITHER, when thus employed, a conjunction; but it is here, as elsewhere, a determinative word, meaning one of two, and serves a purpose similar to that which BOTH serves before co-ordinate propositions, members of propositions, &c., connected by and. The expression in the above example is equivalent to, ONE OF TWO things is asserted, John is mistaken, OR William is mistaken.

(14) If what we believe to be the proper sense of EITHER were strictly attended to, it should be used only when a choice of two coordinates is proposed; but the use of this word has been insensibly extended to cases where there are more than two alternatives proposed.* Thus, "Either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey," &c.

(15) The word ELSE is sometimes employed with or, sometimes without or for the purpose of connecting alternatives. Thus, William must go with us, ELSE I will not go OR I will not go.

(16) The word otherwise is also employed in the same way to connect alternatives. Example: We must govern our passions, OTHERWISE we shall become the worst of slaves. This is a more emphatic, but also a more stiff manner of indicating alternation. Or might be used before OTHERWISE, and consequently both else and otherwise may be regarded as modifications of or, just as we may regard besides, on the contrary, &c., as modifications of and and but.

(17) In like manner the phrase, in other words, is used, sometimes alone, sometimes preceded by or to indicate alternation between two modes of expressing the same assertion, in the same manner as or is employed to indicate alternation of single terms or signs. This may be regarded as a species of verbal alternative connection, viz.: the

* The word alternative also means properly one of two, and in strictness ought not to be extended to a greater number; but we have ventured to depart, for the sake of convenience, from the strict usage.

(12) What word is used where alternation is to be expressed with emphasis? Example? (13) What do some call EITHER when thus employed? State objection.

(14) What is said of the strict use of either? Give example of its use when there are more than two co-ordinates.

(15) What is said of the use of the word else in connecting alternatives? Example? (16) What of otherwise? Example? Is or used with otherwise?

(17) Repeat what is said of the use of the phrase, in other words. Example?

species in which there is a choice presented of different modes of expressing the same assertion, or a choice of equivalent propositions. Example: That man has succeeded in the world, OR, IN OTHER WORDS, he has made a fortune; or simply, In other words, he has made a fortune.

(18) OR may be regarded as the great sign of the alternative combination of propositions, members of propositions and complements. The other forms of expression are only subsidiary.

(19) OR has a negative form NOR, and EITHER a negative form NEITHER. We must make a remark or two on the use of these negative forms.

(20) NOR is sometimes employed as a connective when we couple one negative proposition to another. In this case it is equivalent to AND NOT. Thus, John is NOT at home, NOR is his brother John is not at home, AND his brother is NOT at home. That man has NOT got money, NOR has he got credit. In such constructions it will be observed that we place the subject after the verb. The poets do not restrict themselves to this mode of arrrangement.

"What though his bowl Flames not with costly juice; nor sunk in beds, Oft of gay care, he tosses out the night," &c. (21) Neither is sometimes used in the same way. neither do they spin," &c.

"They toil not,

(22) The more common and emphatic way of connecting two or more members of propositions or complements, in negative alternation, is to place NEITHER before the first, and NOR before the second, third, &c., if there are more than two. Examples: NEITHER John NOR his brother is at home. That boy NEITHER reads NOR writes. "Give me neither poverty nor riches." "I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, &c., shall be able to separate us from the love of God."

(23) It will be observed that NOR and NEITHER―nor express the negation of that which OR and EITHER- -or indicate; that is, they exclude an alternative.

(18) How may or be regarded? How other forms employed in expressing alternation? (19) What are the negative forms of OR and EITHER?

(20) How is NOR sometimes employed? Examples? What is remarked about the arrangement? What is said of the poets? Example? (21) What is said of NEITHER? (22) What is the more common and emphatic mode of connecting members of proposi tions and complements in negative alternation? Illustrate by an example, (23) What observation is made in reference to nor and neither-nor?

(24) Observations on the poetical use of OR and NOR.-The poets often employ or instead of EITHER, and NOR instead of NEITHER before the first of two alternative propositions.* OR is most frequently found employed instead of EITHER, and NOR instead of NEITHER in connecting complements. Examples:

"Whose greater power

Or bids you roar, or bids your roaring cease."

"OR other worlds they seemed, or happy isles."

"OR floating loose, or stiff with mazy gold.”

In prose this would be expressed thus, EITHER bids you roar, OR, &c. EITHER other worlds they seemed, or happy isles. EITHER floating loose, OR stiff, &c.

&c.

"NOR wife, NOR children more shall he behold,

NOR friends, nor sacred home."

In prose this would be expressed thus, NEITHER wife, NOR children,

(25) In the poets NOR for and not, not only often follows an affirmative proposition, but commences a new sentence or section.

"Nor less the palm of peace inwreathes thy brow."
"NOR art thou skilled in awful schemes alone."
"NOR purpose gay,

Amusement, dance, or song, he sternly scorns.' "NOR less at hand the loosened tempest reigns."

In all these examples NOR commences a new sentence, as well as follows affirmative propositions.

*This may perhaps be regarded as an imitation of the Latin usage. This language expresses emphatic alternative connection, by employing the same alternative conjunction before both propositions, or members of propositions or complements. We may remark that it also expresses emphatic simple connection or combination, by a similar repetition of the copulative. Thus, in Latin Vel-vel Either-or, Nec-nec Neither-nor, Et-et Both-and.

(24) Mention a usage of OR and NOR peculiar to the poets. Give examples.
(25) Describe a poetical use of nor, and illustrate by examples.

Milton has employed NOR as equivalent to not even :
"For Heaven hides nothing from thy view,

NOR the deep tract of Hell."

(26) The same mode of punctuation is adopted generally in alternative connection of discourse as in simple connection. Propositions completely expressed are separated by a comma. When members of propositions or complements take OR or NOR between them the comma is generally omitted; though in this matter usage is far from uniform, as will be seen in some of the examples above in which we have followed the punctuation of the copies from which we have quoted. When several co-ordinate complements or members of propositions are connected and the conjunction suppressed, a comma is always inserted. When alternative names are connected by or, the comma is usually interposed, as, Alexander, or Paris.

EXERCISES I., II., &c.-Furnish examples of propositions connected by OR and by EITHER-OR; of the members of propositions-subjects and predicates so connected; and of complements so connected.

(27) YET appears to be sometimes employed in connecting co-ordinate propositions either alone or in connection with and, but, nor, &c. We believe, that, generally, in such cases it indicates the suppression of a concessive proposition. (See § 138: 5.) For example, "I have smitten thee with blasting and mildew, &c., YET have ye not returned unto me"- And THOUGH I have done this, ye have not returned unto me.

A similar remark might, perhaps, be made in reference to the word still, when it apparently serves as the connective of co-ordinates. But most generally this latter when placed thus between co-ordinates modifies some word in the latter proposition.

(28) There are certain forms of expression employed to introduce explanatory matter, such as To WIT, VIDELICET, usually expressed in writing by the contraction viz.; and NAMELY. These may all be regarded as a species of conjunctive contracted propositions. In analysis they may be designated conjunctive phrases used to introduce an explanation or enumeration of particulars. They are equivalent to such propositions as the following; I state particulars to help you to know, or that you may see for yourself, I give you names, or the names are, or by name they are, or the like. To these we may add et cætera, commonly written, &c., which indicates the connection or addition of unnamed particulars similar to those just enumerated.

(26) Tell what is said of the interpunction of alternatives.

(27) What is said of the use of YET in connecting co-ordinate propositions?
(23) What is sald of TO WIT, VIDELICET, NAMELY, and &c. ?

$149. (1) We have already, in treating of simple propositions, given the rule of agreement, or of concord, as the grammarians call it, between verbs and subject nouns of the singular and plural forms and of different persons; namely that the verb and subject must be of the same number and person. (2) Some further rules of concord become necessary in certain cases of combined construction, when two or more subject nouns having common predicates are, for the sake of abbreviation, connected by conjunctions and the predicate expressed once for them all together. (3) When two or more subjects are embraced in this manner under one common predicate, they are generally such as are connected by the copulative AND or the alternatives or or nor. (4) In rare cases, indeed, BUT is employed between two subjects, but then the verb manifestly applies only to the last subject, and is suppressed after the first. The same rule may be given for such cases of adversative construction as for alternative construction. The facts, so far as regards the form of the verb agree, though we should rather, in the cases of adversative connection, explain the construction, as we have just said, by saying that there is a suppression or ellipsis of the verb after the first subject. The following example will serve as a model of the kind of construction which we mean; Not interest, BUT duty as determined his choice.

Leaving out these rare cases of adversative construction to be treated as cases of the ellipsis or suppression of a verb, or, if the reader chooses, to be brought under the rule for alternative subjects, we proceed to lay down rules applying to the case of subjects united by the copulative and of subjects united by the alternative conjunction. (5) The subjects may be all singular, or second, they may be all plural, or third, they may be some singular, and some plural. (6) Omitting the case when all the subjects are plural, because this manifestly comes under Rule I., given in reference to the agreement of verbs and subjects in simple propositions, we have only to do with the cases where all the subjects are singular, or some singular and some plural. (7) These cases need not be considered distinctly in giving a rule for subjects connected by the copulative, as it

$149. (1) Repeat the reference to a rule of concord already given. (2) In reference to what cases do farther rules become necessary? (3) How are several subjects embraced under one assertion usually connected? (4) Tell what is said of constructions with but employed between two subjects. Give an example.

Enumerate three distinct cases of the combination of subjects. (6) Which of these cases may be left out of consideration, and why? (7) Is it necessary to consider these cases distinctly in giving a rule for the concord of verbs with subjects connected by the copulavive? Give a reason.