keep the mouth in the same position, and pass the breath through it. (3) They can be uttered alone, being complete sounds, and hence may constitute a syllable or a word.

(4) The vowel sounds are represented in the written English language by the letters, a, e, i, o, u; which are hence called vowels. (5) The letter y also represents a vowel sound-the same sound as i or e-when found in the middle or end of a syllable. (6) W, also, in the middle or in the end of a syllable is generally considered a vowel. Sometimes it represents the sound of u, as in now, cow, vow, &c.

[(7) In many cases it is, as the language is now pronounced, a mere quiescent or otiose (idle) letter in the written language, having no corresponding sound in the spoken language. This hap pens when it follows the vowel o; as, in low, blow, flow, follow, &c. Sometimes it indicates the particular sound which the preceding vowel represents. This happens when it follows a; as in law, bawl, raw, &c. And sometimes it combines with the vowel e; in which case it is sounded nearly like u. In our language it can never stand alone in a syllable. It must be supported by another vowel. In this it differs from y, as well as from all the other vowels.]

(8) W and y are commonly reckoned consonants when they begin a syllable. [(9) Semivowels-the name given to them, when they occupy this position, by some modern grammarians-is a much more appropriate appellation, if the older grammarians had not already applied it to another class of sounds, or rather—as we have ventured to consider and treat them-modifiers of sounds.

(10) The vowel sounds in the English language are much more numerous than the letters which are used to represent them. (11) The letter a represents three or four distinct sounds, as may be seen in the words late, man, far, ball. E represents the two distinct sounds found in the words, me and met; i the two found in the

our power of continuing these vowel sounds? (3) Can these be uttered alone? What follows as a consequence?

(4) By what letters are the vowel sounds represented? (5) What is said of y? (6) What of w

[(7) What further is said of w ?]

(8) When are 2 and y reckoned consonants? [(9) What other name has been applied to them by some grammarians, and what is said of this other name?

(10) Have we a distinct letter to represent each distinct vowel sound in our language? (11) How many distinct sounds does the letter a represent? How many the letter of &c.

words pin and pine; o the three found in no, not, move, &c. (12) It is reckoned that there are from ten to twelve distinct simple vocal sounds used in the English language. (13) From these we must exclude the sound represented by i in pine, as being a compound, and not a simple sound. (14) Some others, which we have mentioned above, may be considered as distinguished only by a more or less protracted pronunciation.]

§ 38. (1) Two vowel sounds are sometimes pronounced in combination by a single impulse of the voice, or in one syllable. Such combinations are called diphthongs, that is, double sounds. (2) Examples are found in the words voice and ounce, in which two sounds represented by different letters are united in the same syllable. [(3) We have also an example in pine. Here two sounds--the sound of a in man and of i in pin, or, as some think, of the semivowel y in yet—are distinguishable, though the combined sound is represented by the single character i.

(4) On the other hand, two vowel characters, or letters, are often found united in the same syllable in the written language, when the syllable, in our modern pronunciation, contains but one simple vowel sound. We have examples in the words head, field, great, lead, &c. (5) Those combinations which represent a double sound in the spoken language are commonly called by grammarians proper diphthongs, and those which do not represent a double sound are called improper diphthongs-by some, more properly, digraphs. (6) This distinction, it will be noticed, has reference only to the written language. (7) There are no improper diphthongs in the spoken language.* (8) Sometimes in written language we find

As the term diphthong, in its proper sense, can apply only to spoken language, the expressions proper and improper diphthongs, meaning diph(12) How many distinct simple vowel sounds are reckoned in English? (13) What sound represented by a single letter must be excluded from the number of the simple vowel sounds? (14) By what alone do some of the vowel sounds above enumerated seem to be distinguished from each other?]

§ 38. (1) What is said of the combination of vowel sounds, and what are such combinations of simple sounds called? What does the term diphthong mean? (2) Furnish examples. [(8) What is said of i in such words as pine?

(4) Do two towel characters in the same syllable always represent a double sound in spoken language? Give examples. (5) What is a proper diphthong? What an improper diphthong? (G) What is said of this distinction? (7) Are there any improper diphthongs in spoken language? (8) Are three vowel characters ever united in the same syllable in the

three vowel characters combined in one syllable; as in the words beauty, beau, lieutenant, &c. These have been called triphthongs (9), perhaps improperly, as it is more than doubtful whether, in our spoken language, such a thing as the combination of three sounds in one syllable ever occurs. (10) The eau, for example, in beau, represents but a single vocal sound in the pronunciation of the word; and eau in beauty, and ieu in lieutenant, represent certainly nothing more complex than a diphthongal sound.]

§39. CONSONANTS.-(1) The consonants are sounds, or, more properly, modifications of sounds, which cannot be pronounced alone, but only in connection with a vowel.* (2) And hence the name

thongs which are a combination or coalescence of two vowel sounds, and diphthongs which are not a combination of two vowel sounds (that is, which are not diphthongs at all), involve an absurdity. The grammarians have been led into this absurdity by the confusion of vowel sounds with the characters which represent them, both of which they have called by the same name-vowels. We much need a term to express a vowel character or letter distinct from the term used properly to express a vowel sound, and a term to express a written word distinctly from a spoken word. Improper diphthongs are more properly called digraphs—that is, sounds represented by two letters in the written language.

*The vowel in a syllable may be considered as the basis of the sound, and the so called consonantal sounds as modifications applied to this sound (vox) as it passes through the mouth. Every entire syllable is a single sound or utterance, either simply vocal or modified. The consonantal modifications effected by the tongue, lips, teeth, &c., produce that boundless copiousness and variety of articulations which distinguish artificial language. With the vowels alone we could form only a dozen or so, distinct syllables, and even these ill adapted for the purpose of combination to form words. But, by the combination of vowel sounds with consonantal modifications, we can form a great variety of syllables; and by the further combination of two or more of these syllables in words, we obtain the countless number of signs which are employed in the various dialects spoken by the races of mankind.

Since writing the preceding part of this note, we have found a remark in an article on Comparative Philology in the North British Review for November, 1851, which we introduce here as confirmatory of our views.

written language, and if so, what are such combinations called? (9) Are there any triph thongs, that is, combinations of three vowel sounds, in the spoken language? (10) What is said of such combinations of vowel letters as eau in beau and in beauty, and ieu in lieutenant !]

89. (1) What is said of consonants? (2) What does the term consonant mean?

consonant-sounding-with.

(3) Alone, they can, of course, never form a word or syllable. All the remaining letters of the alphabet, after we have subtracted the vowel characters above enumerated, are called consonants. (4) These have been divided by the grammarians into two classes, mutes and semivowels.

MUTES AND SEMIVOWELS.*-(5) The distinction drawn between these is, that the mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel, whereas the semivowels have a sort of imperfect sound without the aid of a vowel.

(6) The consonantal sounds, classed under the name of mutes, are represented in our alphabet by the letters b, c hard, d, g hard, k, p, q, and t. [(7) To these may be added the two distinct sounds represented by th in the words thing and though, which are simple sounds, or simple modifications of vocal sounds, though bothawkwardly and improperly-represented in our present written language by the two characters t and h. In the Anglo-Saxon alphabet these sounds had each an appropriate representative. (8) From the mutes above enumerated we may, as regards sounds, deduct two, since the letters c hard, k, and q, represent only a single sound, and c soft has the same sound as s.]

(9) The semivowels are represented by the letters f, l, m, n, r, s, v, and c and g soft. (10) We have omitted x and z in enumerating the mutes and semivowels, because each of them is the representative of a combination of two consonantal sounds, x of k combined

"Alphabets are the result of analysis; syllables are really the units of sound. The Chinese and, we believe, the Maudschur, have really only syllabaries, the former significant, and the latter phonetic as well."

* This classification is of little practical use in our language, and is founded on, what seems to us, a rather doubtful distinction. Still, as it is old, and commonly adopted, it deserves some passing notice.

(8) Can a syllable be formed of consonants alone? (4) Tell the classes into which most grammarians have divided the consonants?

(5) State the distinction between mutes and semivowels.

(6) Enumerate the mute consonants. [(7) What is said of the sounds represented by th? (8) What is said of the sounds of e, k, and q?]

(9) Enumerate the semivowels. (10) What reason is assigned for omitting the sounds represented by a and a? (11) What other letter has been excluded from the enumeration? [(12) What is said of the propriety of excluding ?] (18) What is said of the liquids!"

with s, and z, as commonly supposed, of d with s.* (11) H has also been excluded from this enumeration, because it is said to represent only an aspiration or breathing. [(12) This is, perhaps, unjust treatment of our strong aspirated English h, since it seems to serve the same purpose with all the other consonantal soundsthe purpose, namely, of so modifying the utterance of a vowel as to form a distinct syllable. The sound represented by hat, for example, when well pronounced, is nearly as distinct from at as the sounds cat, or fat, or mat, and serves as well the purpose of a distinct sign in articulate language.] (13) Four of the semivowels are distinguished by the name of liquids, from their smoothness, and their consequent easy union in the same syllable with other consonants. The liquids are l, m, n, and r.

§40. [(1) Another, and more practically useful, classification of the consonantal sounds, is into sharp and flat, or hard and soft. (2) This classification claims our notice, because the fact on which it is founded exercises an important influence on the inflexion of many words in the English language-I mean the spoken language. It accounts, also, for some of the irregularities of our pronunciation of the written letters; or, in other words, for some of the numerous inconsistencies between our orthography and our pronunciation. We are indebted to Dr. Latham for what follows:

(3) When two or more mutes of different degrees of sharpness or flatness come together in the same syllable, they form a combination of sounds that is incapable of being pronounced. (4) This may be understood by practising a few combinations according to the following table. The sharp mutes are arranged on the left, the flat ones on the right side of the line.

* Whether d is a component of the sound of z, as now pronounced in the English language, may well be doubted.

§ 40. [(1) What other classification of the consonantal sounds is mentioned? (2) State the claims which this classification has on our notice.

(8) What happens when mutes of different degrees of sharpness or flatness come together? (4) What mode of illustration is adopted and recommended? (5) Name the sharp