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he does not describe the means used for that purpose. We do not know at what period the Egyptians substituted ovens for dung-hills; but, of course, it was after Busbequius's time; it must, however, have been before Paul Lucas travelled (the middle of the 17th century,) as he describes the use and construction of the hatching oven. A very minute and interesting account of them is given by Greaves, in a paper in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 137.

Busbequius seems to have been very fond of horses, and to have taken the opportunities and facilities afforded by his residence in the East, to gratify that fondness: he had many of a very fine breed, Syrian, Cilician, Arabian, and Cappadocian. He derived great pleasure from attending to their habits and their actions, especially when, in the evening, they were brought out of their stables into the open court, in order that they might enjoy the cool air, after the heat of a summer's day. At this time, he describes them as exhibiting most decided and pleasing symptoms of enjoyment; throwing their beautiful manes to and fro on their arched and raised necks, as if they wished to be admired: their fore feet were fastened together, and one of their hind feet tied with a rope. He highly commends the judicious and kind management of the Turkish horses.

"When I travelled through Pontus, part of Bithynia, and Cappadocia, I observed, with much interest, the manner in which the peasants treated the foals, from a very tender age; how kindly they behaved to them, rearing them in their own houses, and admitting them every where except to their tables; you would have thought they could not treat their children with more care and fondness: round the neck of each they put a kind of necklace, which they believed would protect him from every kind of fascination; of this, all the peasants are very fearful, and, therefore, never neglect to protect their favourite horses from it by all the charms with which they are acquainted, and especially by this necklace. The lads who have charge of them never beat or strike them; kind words and stroaking are alone employed in training them. Hence, they are much attached to man; and you very seldom, indeed, meet with a refractory or vicious horse. How very opposite to this treatment, (exclaims our author,) is the European mode of training and treating them: according to it, nothing effectual can be done, except it be accompanied with loud and angry words, and severe and repeated blows; hence it arises, that when the groom enters the stables, the horses quake with fear, and at once hate and dislike their attendants."

The Turks train them to kneel when commanded, in order that they may mount with more facility, and to take up from the ground in their mouth, and give to the rider, his whip or sword: when they are perfect in these habits, they put silver rings into their nostrils, as a mark of honour and docility. Bus

bequius saw many instances of horses, who, the instant their riders fell off by any accident, would stand quite still and quiet; of others that, even while their masters stood at a considerable distance, would run round, and stop in their circuit, wherever, as often, and as long, as they pleased. A person, who owned a number of these horses, dining with Busbequius, while they were in the court below, as soon as they heard his voice, they. began to neigh and to erect their ears.

The shoes of the Turkish horses are not, as in Europe, open in the middle; but they cover nearly the whole foot, and thus more effectually protect it from injury. They seem to live longer than with us: Busbequius saw many 20 years old, and still retaining all their spirit, vigour, and activity, as much so as European horses of 8 years old. There were several in the Sultan's stables, which, having been great favorites, were freed from work, and well attended to, that had reached the age of 50, and upwards. In the summer nights, when the heat is very great, the Turks do not keep their horses under cover, but expose them to the night air, covered with body-clothes, with dry dung under them: this dung is prepared from the excrements of the horse, carefully collected, dried in the sun, and then pulverised. This is the only bed the horses have; the use of straw for this purpose being unknown. They give them very little hay, and not much barley, preferring softer food, as better adapted to render them swift and strong. They change their body-clothes according to the temperature of the season, being especially careful, by attention to them, to preserve the smoothness and gloss of their skins.

"From these horses I derived great pleasure, when, as the sun was setting, they were brought into the court, out of their stables: on my calling them by the name of their country, Arab, Caramanian, &c., they replied with a neighing, and turned their eyes on me."

Busbequius bought six female camels, professedly to carry his luggage, but with the intention, if practicable, of carrying them out of the country, and presenting them to the emperor.

Rice, among vegetables, and camels, among beasts of burden, according to him, are the two objects from which the Turks derive the greatest advantage: each is particularly suited to the long and arduous journeys which they so frequently undertake. The rice does not soon spoil, and it affords a wholesome, agreable, and nutritious diet; a small quantity serves a great number. The camel is able to carry a very heavy weight patiently and without injury; endures long hunger and thirst; and requires little attention: one person can take care of six camels: no animal is so obedient to its master; it does not require a curry-comb, but only such a brush as is used for clothes: it kneels rather than

lies down on the naked ground, and, in this posture, receives its load; if the load is too heavy, it groans and refuses to rise: it breaks down under a very heavy burden, on slippery or deep roads. It is interesting to see them, kneeling in a circle, their heads close together, taking their scanty food and drink out of one tub. When, on a journey, no other food can be procured, they will eat thorns and brambles; and, it seems, the more their mouths are wounded and made to bleed by this food, the more pleasure they take in it. Scythia supplies the Turks with many camels, but by far the greatest number come from Syria and Assyria. In these countries, they feed in immense herds; and so numerous and cheap are they, that, in exchange for a blood mare, 100 camels may sometimes be obtained: this, however, may arise as much from the scarcity of horses as from the multitude of camels, in these countries; for a blood mare is, there, so highly prized, that that person is regarded as very rich who possesses one. When the Sultan goes to war, he often takes with him upwards of 40,000 camels, and as many baggage mules on his Persian expedition, these were chiefly laden with provisions, principally rice.

On this expedition, it was absolutely necessary for him to carry his provisions with him; for that part of Persia which he invaded, naturally barren, was rendered still less capable of maintaining an army, by its being laid waste on the approach of the enemy. During the whole of their advances, the Turks are very abstemious, reserving the principal part of their provisions for their retreat, if it should become necessary. Even then, the provision carried by the camels and mules is distributed only to the prince, the Janissaries, and his favorite and immediate attendants: all the rest must look to their own individual supplies. Each soldier, who can afford it, has a led horse, on which he places what is necessary for the expedition; a small tent, to defend him from the sun and rain; a few clothes and bed clothes; one or more bags full of flour; a small quantity of butter; some spices and salt: by means of these, when all other supplies fail them, they contrive to support life: a few spoonsfull of the flour is put into water; to it is added a small piece of butter, and some salt and spices; these, boiled together, they take once or twice a day, without any bread, unless, perhaps, they have brought some biscuits with them. Some have a quantity of beef, dried and reduced to a kind of powder, which they eat along with the mess above described. In all these expeditions, a great number of horses necessarily die: the flesh of these they gladly eat, as a sumptuous repast, under their circumstances. The owners of the lost horses proceed with the expedition, carrying on their heads the saddles, thus indicating their loss, and supplicating from their sovereign, or such as can

afford it, either other horses, or money to buy them. The Turks contend with, and overcome, the greatest difficulties and privations, during their military expeditions, by means of their patience and temperance. "Very different," adds Busbequius," is the case with our soldiers, who, in the very heart of war, long for their accustomed food, for dainties, and all the conveniences of a full and regular table: if they do not get these, they become discontented and disobedient, and thus a prey to the enemy: and if they do get them, they, equally, become the causes of their own destruction. Each soldier is his own greatest enemy, through his intemperance: this, if he escape the foe, will assuredly destroy him."

Busbequius is fond of returning to the subject of the Turks' attachment to particular animals, and their superstitious abhorrence of others. The dog they esteem an unclean animal; but the cat is in high veneration: to this has greatly contributed the tradition, that it was a favorite with Mahomet, who permitted it to sleep on his sleeve, and, at one time, when a cat was thus sleeping, and he was obliged to go to the temple, would not permit it to be disturbed, but ordered the sleeve of his garment to be cut off. The Turks are very indignant when they see any animal treated with cruelty. Of their sentiments on this subject, our author gives an instance. A Venetian had cruelly treated a bird, which he had caught the Turks learned this: they surrounded his house, dragged him out of it, and carried him before the cadi; and it was only through the intervention of the Venetian consul he was liberated.

In Constantinople, it is a common and lucrative business, to breed nightingales, and teach them to sing: these are let out, in the spring, at a high rate. Busbequius saw a man, who had linnets so tame and well taught, that when a person held a piece of money in his hand, at an open window, they would fly to him, and endeavour to seize it: if the man held it fast, they would perch on his finger, and remain on it, even though he should go through the whole house: as soon as they got the piece of money, they flew back to their master, who remained in the street, and directed them to him by the sound of a little bell; to him they delivered the money, and received, as a reward, a few grains of hemp seed.

Our author seems so fond of every thing that relates to the habits of animals, that he lingers long on the subject, and, more than once, returns to it; so that, in his Letters, and especially in his third, there is much more, besides what we have selected. He next adverts to the opinions entertained by the Turks, respecting female chastity. On this subject they are so rigid, that they keep their women shut up in the house, scarcely permitting them to see the sun. When they do come into pub

lic, they are so much covered and muffled up, that they seem spectres, rather than living creatures. They, indeed, can see the men, through their veils, but the men cannot see them; for it is a received opinion, among the Turks, that no woman, in the least recommended by youth or beauty, can be seen by a man, without the purity of his mind being corrupted. Their own brothers may see them, but not their husbands' brothers. Men who are very rich, or in high station, make this condition, when they marry, that their wives shall never cross the door of their apartment, and that no man or woman shall be admitted to see them, except their father and mother at a certain time of the year; and if the women are sprung from a noble family, or bring a large portion, their husbands, in return, promise that they will have no concubines, but confine themselves to their wives; otherwise it is lawful for a Turk to have several wives, besides his proper one; and no difference is made, in treatment or law, between the children. Their concubines are either bought, or acquired, as captives, in war; and, when they are tired of them, they can either sell them or turn them away. The wife is distinguished from the concubine by the portion she brings; on the strength of this, she rules over all the others, and over the whole household. The husband determines with whom he will pass the night: his selection he signifies to his wife, and she orders the favoured woman to attend him. On Friday, however, each week, the husband must sleep with his wife. Divorces are common, and easily procured for various causes: the divorced wife receives back her portion, except when her conduct has been very bad. It is not so easy for a woman to divorce her husband: when she wishes to do so, she goes before a judge, and expresses her wish the judge asks the reason: in some cases, no answer is given, but the women merely pull off their slipper, and place it on the ground inverted.

The richer Turks have private baths in their own houses, in which they, and their women, frequently bathe; the poorer classes use the public baths, which are very common, for the Turks abhor an unclean skin as much as they do impurity of mind: 66 nec alvum excrementis exonerant quin aquam secum portent, quâ partes obscenas lavent."

In one of the interviews with Rustan, the Turk asked him, why he did not embrace the Mahometan religion, promising him, if he did, great honours and rewards. Busbequius replied that he was resolved to adhere to the faith in which he was educated, and which his master professed. "Very well," said Rustan, "but what is your opinion of the soul?" To this, Busbequius replied that he believed it was immortal: after thinking awhile, "So it is," the Turk observed; "I am firmly persuaded, that all will partake eternal happiness, who have

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