or give the Roman Catholic Princes any further offence. The mere separation from Rome, at which many probably aimed, appeared to some to be excusable, whereas others affirmed that, with the rejection of the Papal power, a great portion of the doctrines and usages fell to the ground. Besides,

political considerations ought not to decide in preference to others; on the contrary, truth ought to be pursued, regardless of the consequences, and entire confidence placed in the providence of God. But as both parties knew that no direct contradiction availed against the King's obstinate and violent temper, they endeavoured to gain him by excessive, nay, unlimited concessions, by which his influence unexpectedly increased to an almost incredible height, and inspired him with the foolish and tyrannical idea, of limiting the faith of the whole people to a narrow line, arbitrarily fixed by himself.

In favour of the Reformation were Queen Anne, Archbishop Cranmer, and Cromwell the Secretary of State: against it, the Duke of Norfolk, Gardiner Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal Reginald Pole. Anne's father was descended from a distinguished family, her mother was daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. She went to France with Mary, consort of Louis XII., but afterwards returned to England. She was very handsome, sung, played, and danced admirably, and was so cheerful, so extremely engaging in her manners, that the King, who was

thirty-eight years of age, conceived an attachment for her when she was two and twenty, and, in spite of all difficulties, at length married her.

Thomas Cranmer, born on the 2d July, 1498, of respectable but not very rich parents, had had in his youth opportunities to improve his constitution by riding, hunting, &c.; studied at Cambridge, took his degree of Doctor in Divinity in 1526, became teacher of that science in Buckingham, and tutor in the family of Lord Waltham. He probably first made himself known to the King by the proposal to submit the question of the validity of his marriage with Catharine, to the Universities; and afterwards, by various services, so rose in his favour, that Henry resolved to give him the Archbishopric of Canterbury. Cranmer had many reasons for dreading this office; first, the tyranny of the King, the direction and measure of which it was difficult to judge of; then the necessity of taking the oath to the Pope, and also to the King; and, lastly, Cranmer had lived for some years in a clandestine marriage with the niece of Osiander, contracted during his residence in Germany, on his return from a mission to Rome in the year 1532. These considerations, however, were at length overcome, by the hope that he should be able in his new position, to render very important services to the Church and religion. He therefore received the Papal Bull of Confirmation from the

hands of the King, and took the Archiepiscopal oath, with the reserve of the divine laws and of those of the kingdom. Cranmer's friends have not failed to bring forward the point of view in which this conduct may be justified; but they must confess that he did not act openly towards the Pope, and that he would hardly have been confirmed had he previously made known his reservations. Cranmer was a learned, and extremely diligent man; a friend and patron of the learned and of sciences, who, by his new and impressive manner of preaching, did a great deal of good; and by his moderation and good sense, established and promoted, more than any other, the Reformation in England. The King protected him against all accusations and persecutions, either because he was convinced of the Archbishop's innocence, or of his usefulness, or perhaps out of mere caprice. Cranmer earnestly laboured to unite all Protestants to agree for one Church Government and one Creed; everywhere insisted on the genuine Christianity of charity and mildness; and by no means drew up the formulæ in such a partial and strict manner, that only a few persons would have passed for orthodox. (7) But at that time every one considered his own views, even in the most minute secondary points, to be alone true, holy, and inviolable; and, on the other hand, each was variously modified by political consi

derations, so that Cranmer's hope, like many others, wholly failed. This was certainly in many respects a misfortune, though the question may be asked, whether complete success might not have led to a kind of Protestant papacy?

Thomas Cromwell, of low descent, but distinguished talents, was initiated in the affairs of state by Wolsey, whose devoted friend and public defender he remained even during his misfortunes. He was eloquent, acute, bold, diligent, grateful, possessed an extraordinary memory, and was from conviction a zealous opponent of the ancient ecclesiastical institutions. For this he was hated by the Clergy, and was despised by the nobility for his mean origin.

The Duke of Norfolk, a practised courtier, was a firm adherent to Catholicism, and the enemy of the Queen, although her maternal uncle.

Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, owed even more than Cromwell to Cardinal Wolsey, but abandoned him as soon as he had forfeited the King's favour. On the other hand he flattered Cranmer when his influence unexpectedly increased, and servilely begged his pardon for hostile attacks. Gardiner was well versed in civil and canon law, but not so strong in divinity. He wrote Latin well, read Greek, and was zealously devoted to the ancient Church. But, as he did not always think it advisable decidedly to defend it, it was said, "That

he was indeed very skilful in business, but insincere, dissembling, and unscrupulous in the choice of means to attain his purposes.

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Margaret, daughter of George Duke of Clarence, and niece of Richard III., was married to Richard Pole, by whom she had a son in March, 1500, who was afterwards so celebrated under the name of Cardinal Reginald, or Raynald Pole. He studied first at Oxford; at the age of eighteen repaired for five years to Padua, visited Rome before his departure, left England for the second time at the commencement of the religious disturbances, and resided at Paris till he received urgent solicitations to return. Henry VIII. wished very much to gain over the Cardinal to his opinion, as being a near relation, and a learned and highly respectable man; but neither arguments nor the offer of the Bishopric of Winchester, or of the Archbishopric of York, could shake his conviction. On the contrary, Pole went to Avignon, and afterwards to Italy, and wrote a very violent book on the Unity of the Church, to bring back the King from his apostacy. For this, Pope Paul III. created him Cardinal(18) in December, 1536. King Henry, on the other hand, declared him a traitor, set a price upon his head, (50,000 dollars, says Herrera,) and afterwards, contrary to all justice, caused his mother to be executed.

Simultaneously with these ecclesiastical changes,