others, should be used, and not only in public, but even in the closet.

Simultaneously with these events at home, there were from 1542 to 1546, though with interruptions, wars with France and Scotland, which cost large sums, occasioned great devastations, and were of no real advantage to either party. Thus, for instance, according to official accounts, there were destroyed, pulled down, or burnt in Scotland, by Henry's command, from the 8th to the 23d of December, 1545, three hospitals, seven convents, thirteen mills, sixteen castles, five market towns, and two hundred and forty-three villages. By the treaty with France, concluded on the 13th of June, 1546, England retained Boulogne for eight years, as a security for a debt of two and a half millions of livres, whereas the war had cost the King £1,340,000 sterling. In order to defray these expenses, the King had issued base coin, and increased the nominal value of gold and silver, raised forced loans, and levied troops by his own authority. When all these revenues were not sufficient, the Parliament was liberal at the expense of others, that is to say, it allowed the King to sequestrate the estates of the chapters, chapels, and universities, which reprehensible resolution, however, was only partially executed.

Meantime Henry was growing old, and became só corpulent that he was unable to ascend the stairs,

and could scarcely pass through a door. His Queen attended him with the greatest care, and endeavoured, by every means in her power, to cheer his gloomy hours: but when he found that her religious views differed on some points from his, he ordered the Chancellor Wriothesley, to draw up an accusation against her, which would have been infallibly followed by a sentence of death, but Wriothesley, or some other person, lost the paper from his pocket: the Queen was informed of the danger that threatened her, and in another conversation on religion, contrived to persuade the King, that she had contradicted him merely for the advantage of his instructions. When, therefore, the Chancellor came according to his orders, to arrest the Queen, Henry abused him as a fool and a beast!

About the same time the first man in the kingdom, the Duke of Norfolk, (45) and his excellent son, the Earl of Surrey, were accused of High Treason, on the most frivolous pretences; for instance, because they had made use of certain badges or insignia, which belonged to the King alone. The true reason, which, however, was not expressed by the King, was, perhaps, the dread which he, as well as the uncles of his son Edward, the Seymours, entertained of the power and influence of those men. Norfolk and Surrey proved that what they had done was customary from time immemorial, according to the decision of the Heralds, and if the

legal forms had been duly observed, they would probably have fully justified themselves on every point; but the son, after a hasty trial, was executed on the 17th of January, 1547: the father was put on his trial on the 18th,-sentenced to death by both Houses on the 24th, and the sentence confirmed by the King on the 27th. Cranmer's intercession, as well as the recollection of Norfolk's obedience and faithful services, were disregarded; but the tyrannical King died on the 28th of January, 1547, in the 56th year of his age(46), by which the life of Norfolk was saved, though he was unjustly kept in prison till the accession of Mary.

He had not indeed governed without Parliaments, but the latter had done as little for true liberty as their dreaded master, and even confirmed many absurd, contradictory, unjust laws. A Session of Parliament seldom lasted above six weeks; but it often met both in the morning and afternoon, and no one was permitted to be absent without the King's permission, under severe penalties. Formerly, gifts and taxes were granted by the Clergy in the Convocation, by the Nobility in the Upper House, and the Commons in the Lower House, each in its own manner; but gradually the assent of the latter was necessary to every grant of money, though many money bills originated in the Upper House. At the accession of Henry, the Lower House consisted of 298 Members; he granted 38, and his

daughter Mary 23 new votes. In spite of all the taxes, compulsory measures, and the immense inheritance of the Church, Henry left debts, which were the more oppressive, because, after a long prohibition to take any interest, the rate of interest was fixed by law, in 1546, at 10 per cent. The rent of land appears to have been extremely low, in comparison with later times; attempts to fix unalterably the rate of wages and prices of commodities, and to prevent luxury, could not have any permanent and extensive effect. Foreign mechanics and artists, who frequently settled in England, still excelled the natives, and were on that account often hated, persecuted, or restricted by partial laws. Effects equally prejudicial were produced by monopolies, the exclusion of all trades from the country, or the confining of some trades to certain towns.

EDWARD VI., though only the son of an English lady, ascended the throne without opposition. His father had appointed for the boy, who was only nine years of age, a Council of Regency, consisting of sixteen members, and an auxiliary Council of twelve members; (47) most of the persons so appointed, thought it, however, advisable to obtain full powers to govern from the new King also, and, as the splendour and interest of the kingdom required, to place a single man, the King's maternal uncle, at the head as Protector. The Chancellor Wriothesley

who, from Cranmer's aversion to state affairs, hoped to obtain the greatest influence, in vain affirmed that this was an unlawful violation of the King's directions, which having been confirmed by Parliament could not be abolished without its authority; there were not yet any fixed principles of legislation, nor were they wished for. On the 17th of February, 1547, the Protector was created Duke of Somerset, and Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. These two men who were already at variance, were not to be drawn nearer together; on the contrary, Somerset found pretexts and opportunities entirely to exclude the latter from public business, and to obtain from Edward a new patent respecting his Protectorship. By this new authority his negative stopped all business, and nothing could be done without his assent. He summoned as many counsellors, and whom he pleased, filled up the places which had become vacant in the Council, and obtained almost royal power. Though most of the persons appointed by Henry VIII. remained in their offices, and free from all responsibility; yet his directions for the guardianship were abolished by the new law, which, as the King was only nine years old, must be considered as having been obtained surreptitiously, or even extorted. But as nobody was directly offended by it, as the people paid little attention to their own rights,it seemed necessary to have a man at the head of

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