§ 270.

AGE AND ORIGINALITY OF THE PSALMS.

In respect to the spurious and anonymous psalms, there are questions to be asked, not only relating to their authors, but more especially to their age, and the historical circumstances to which they refer. It is pretty certain that a great part of them, in particular the plaintive psalms, are to be placed in the later times, not far from the exile. A great many belong to the time of the exile." Some are to be placed after it.

There are strong exegetical arguments for referring some psalms to the time of the Maccabees, such as xliv. lx. lxxiv. But on account of the difficulties arising from the history of the canon and of the Septuagint version, this becomes doubtful."

Besides, the critic must distinguish, by means of the language and æsthetical considerations, the ancient from

Psalm xiv. li. lxxvii. lxxxv. cvi. cvii. cxxvi. cxxix, cxxxvii. cxlvii., and

others.

The following authors believe there are psalms from the Maccabaic age: Rudinger, Herman von der Hardt, Venema, Rosenmüller, E. G. Bengel, (Diss. in Psal.; Tub. 1806,) Bertholdt, Kaiser, and Hesse, (De Psal. Macc.; 1838.) Hitzig finds none before the time of the Maccabees, after Ps. lxxiii. [?] [Eichhorn, (§ 621,)] Gesenius, (A. L. Z. for 1816, xvi. No. 81, p. 643,) and Hassler, (Com. crit. de Ps. Maccab.; Ulm, 1727—1732, 4to.,) think it is doubtful that there are Maccabaic psalms. Certainly it is not necessary, on account of the late composition of the book of Daniel, to assume that the canon was finally closed, and the Alexandrian version complete, in all parts, at the time when the Wisdom of Sirach was translated; but yet it is difficult to believe the collection of Psalms remained open till that time, for the later books of the Psalms were needed for liturgical purposes. Yet it is still more difficult to explain how Maccabaic psalms came in the first books of Psalms. Finally, it is not easy to see how false opinions on the origin of such recent works could, in so few years, become current, and be preserved in the inscriptions of the psalms.

the more modern, and the originals from the imitations. Imitations occur most frequently among the temple hymns, the psalms of entreaty and complaint."

b

§ 271.

ORIGIN OF THE COLLECTION OF PSALMS.

This collection was gradually made from several smaller collections. This appears, 1. From the dissimilarity of the titles. 2. From the repetition of a psalm; thus, Ps. liii. is the same as Ps. xiv. The recurrence, however, of parts of psalms, is not so strong an argument. 3. From the fact that the psalms of the same author are not all collected together, but are in part scattered about, here and there, (Psalms of David, iii.—xli.; of the Korahites, xlii.-xlix.; of Asaph, lxxiii.-lxxxiii.) Sometimes those hymns of a similar character are placed together, (the plaintive psalms, lvi.-lix.; the songs of degrees, so called, cxx.-cxxxv.; and the songs of praise, cxlvi.—cl.) 4. From the doxologies at the end of the books, and the formula at the end of the second book, "The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended." (lxxii. 20.)

It is certain we are to regard the first book (i.-xli.) as the original collection. The second book, it is probwas made up from several separate

omers.

alm xxv. xxxv. lxix. lxxxviii. cxix., and others; xcvii. c. cx.
De Wette, Com. in Ps. p. 15, sqq.

Ps. lxx. is the same as xl. 13-17; Ps. cviii. 1-5, as lvii. 8-12; and Ps. cviii. 6-13, as lxx. 7-14. The difference in the text of these reiterated pieces, and also between Ps. xviii. and 2 Sam. xxii., does not arise from different recensions of the poet, but only from the free treatment it received in being copied, or in passing from mouth to mouth.

(xliii.-1. and li. lxv.) and supplementary additions, and afterwards appended to the first book. A third collection was made, in the same manner, from separate collections, (lxxiii.—lxxxiii. lxxxiv.—lxxxix.) This formed the third book, and was distinguished from the two preceding by the formula. Here Ps. lxxxvi., standing among psalms that certainly are not David's, is ascribed to him, by the title; but this title has, perhaps, been interpolated, through force of a conjecture founded on verses 2, 4, 16. It is the only psalm in the book ascribed to David; all the rest are referred to Asaph, the sons of Korah, and Ethan the Ezrahite.

The two last books, which contain most of the liturgical pieces, were added in the same manner."

Judging from Ps. xiv., the first collection was made about the time of the exile, or after it. The completion of the whole must be referred to a much later period. The collection was designed, incontestably, for religious, ascetical, and liturgical uses. Bertholdt has examined the various opinions of ancient and modern writers, respecting the age of the collections, but he has himself gone the farthest in this analysis, and certainly too far."

Ewald (vol. i. p. 194) thinks Ps. xcii.-c., which closely resemble each other, form a collection by themselves. The connection between the psalins of degrees (cxx.-cxxxiv.) is obvious. The hallelujah psalms begin with civ., and Ewald thinks they also form an independent collection. Book i. is mostly Davidic; book ii. mostly Koraitic (xlii.-1.) and Davidic. (li.—lxv.)

Bertholdt, p. 2009, sqq. Ewald (p. 188) thinks the division into five books was subsequently made; and Hitzig divides them into three larger books, which were originally independent collections: 1. Ps. i.-xli., for the most part Davidic, and perhaps older odes. 2. Ps. xlii.-lxxxix., odes of the middle period. 3. Ps. xc.-ci., modern and very modern odes. He makes the interesting remark, that Elohim is the prevalent name of God in xlii.-lxxxiii., which he sets down to the account of the collector, but we to that of the age when they were composed. See below, § 284.

CHAPTER II.

THE LAMENTATIONS."

§ 272.

THE KIND OF COMPOSITION.

They have

On the one side, these Lamentations are connected with the psalms of entreaty and complaint. the same occasion and the same subject. They are national songs,-of true patriotism. But on the other side, they are connected with the lamentations for the dead, which occur in 2 Sam. i. 19, sqq., iii. 33, and 2 Ch. xxxv. 25. Perhaps they have the same tone and rhythm as these. The literary notices in these passages, in Samuel and Chronicles, must certainly refer to our book of Lamentations: this is plain, since the writer of the Chronicles thought that Josiah was

a

Tarnovii in Threnos Jer. Comm.; Hamb. 1707, 4to.

J. Theoph. Lessing; Observatt. in Tristia Jer.; Lips. 1770.

Threni Jer. philol. et. crit. illustrati a J. H. Pareau; Lug. Bat. 1790. Curæ exeg. et crit. in Thren. Jer., Auctore Jo. Fr. Schleusner, in Eichhorn's Rep. vol. xii.

Beit. z. Erkl. des sogen. hohen Liedes, Koheleths und der Klaglieder, von Gaab; Tüb. 1795.

Diss. ad Thren. Jer. Auct. J. Otto, præs. Schnurrer; Tüb. 1795, 4to.
Rosenmüller, Schol.

Translated by Börmel, m. e. Vorr. v. Herder, 1781; Horrer, 1784; Jod Löwe and Aaron Wolfssohn, 1790; M. Hartmann, in Just?s Blumen althebr. Dichtk.; (Welcker,) in griech. Versmaas. 1810; Riegler, 1814; Goldwitzer, mit Vergl. der LXX. u. Vulg. u. krit. Anmerkk. 1828; Wiedenfeld, Elberf 1830; Ewald, 1. c. vol. 1.

[Translated into English by Broughton and Blayney.]

celebrated in both, and at his time it is scarcely probable there were other lamentations extant."

§ 273.

TITLE AND CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.

Under the title, which is the characteristic word for beginning a complaint -in 2 Sam. i. 19, 27and also with the title, (or 9ovo among the Greeks,) we have five songs relating to the conquest and destruction of the city of Jerusalem, and the temple, (i. ii. iv. v.,) and to the unfortunate lot of the poet himself. (iii.) The historical relation of the whole cannot be doubted; but yet there seems to be a gradual ascent in describing the condition of the city."

• See § 273.

See Josephus, x. 5, 1; Jerome, Com. in Zech. xii. 11; J. D. Michaelis, in his Uebers.; note on Lowth, Sac. Poet. Heb. xxii. (p. 565, Rosenmüller's ed.,) though he afterwards changed his opinion in N. Or. Bib. vol. i. p. 106; and Dathe, Proph. Maj. ed. 1, (different in ed. 2.) See, on the other side, Eichhorn, § 652. — Horrer and Jahn (p. 572) think the final chapter refers to the events related in 2 Kings xxiv. 8, sqq. Bertholdt (p. 2314-2322) takes the opposite view; but, even if this is not correct, Eichhorn's explanation is forced. He says, "The first lamentation bewails chiefly the deathlike stillness about Jerusalem; and the second, the destruction of the city and temple." Perhaps chap. i. is written in the interval between 2 Kings xxv. 4 and 8. This is the opinion of Riegler, (Uebers, p. 4;) but Bertholdt (p. 2318) dissents from it. Pareau refers chap. i. to Jer. xxxvii. 5, sqq.; chap. iii. to Jer. xxxviii. 2, sqq.; chap. iv. to Jer. xxxix. 1, sqq., and 2 Kings xxv. 1, sqq.; chap. ii. to the destruction of the city and temple. Chap. v. appears to be the latest, and is referred to the time after it. Ewald (p. 145, sq.) says the situation is the same, only the time is different. "In chap. i. and ii. we find sorrow without consolation; in chap. iii., consolation for the poet himself; in chap. iv., the lamentation is renewed with greater violence; but soon the whole people, as if urged by their own spontaneous impulse, fall to weeping and hoping, (17 —21 ;) (?) and in chap. v., nothing remains but the simple prayer of the whole community for deliverance - a prayer, which, though full of anguish, is yet composed and hopeful."