wrote a History of Lydia in four books. Suidas cites | pleasing to Antipater that he immediately released the the second. Dionysius of Halicarnassus also quotes this work, and speaks of the author in terms of high commendation. (Ant. Rom., vol. 1, p. 22, ed. Reiske.) The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthenius, in Stephanus of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius: by Hephaestion also (p. 14, ed. Gaisf.). The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in his 66 Historicorum Græcorum Antiquiss. Fragmenta," Heidelb., 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit., vol. 2, p. 109, seqq.)

XENOCLES, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on one occasion (Olym. 91.2, B.C. 415). He was of dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus. In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term unxavodipas to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xenocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed., p. 66.)

prisoners. It may be mentioned as another example of moderation in Xenocrates, that when Alexander, to mortify Aristotle, against whom he had an accidental pique, sent Xenocrates a magnificent present of fifty talents, he accepted only thirty mind, returning the rest to Alexander with this message: that the large sum which Alexander had sent was more than he should have been able to spend during his whole life. So abstemious was he with respect to food, that his provision was frequently spoiled before it was consumed. His chastity was invincible. Laïs, a celebrated Athenian courtesan, attempted, without success, to seduce him. Of his humanity, no other proof can be necessary than the following pathetic incident. A sparrow, which was pursued by a hawk, flew into his bosom; he afforded it shelter and protection till its enemy was out of sight, and then let it go, saying that he would never betray a suppliant. (El., V. H., 13, 31.) He was fond of retirement, and was seldom XENOCRATES, I. an ancient philosopher, born at seen in the city. He was discreet in the use of his Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B.C. 400. H first time, and carefully allotted a certain portion of each attached himself to Eschines, but afterward became day to its proper business. One of these he employa disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating ed in silent meditation. He was an admirer of the his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, com- mathematical sciences, and was so fully convinced of paring him with Aristotle, who was also one of his their utility, that, when a young man who was unacpupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the quainted with geometry and astronomy desired adspur, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required mission, he refused his request, saying that he was the curb. His temper was gloomy, his aspect severe, not yet possessed of the handles of philosophy. In and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These fine, Xenocrates was eminent both for the purity of material defects his master took great pains to cor- his morals and for his acquaintance with science, and rect, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Gra- supported the credit of the Platonic school by his lecces; and the pupil was patient of instruction, and tures, his writings, and his conduct. (Plut., de Virt. knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He Mor., 2, p. 399.) He lived to the first year of the compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice, 116th Olympiad, B.C. 316, or the 82d of his age, which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains what- when he lost his life by accidentally falling, in the ever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates dark, into a reservoir of water. The philosophical attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a vio- tenets of Xenocrates were truly Platonic, but in his lent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut method of teaching he made use of the language of off his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this," the Pythagoreans. He made Unity and Diversity prinpointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc- ciples in nature, or gods; the former of whom he reprates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after resented as the father, and the latter as the mother his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in of the universe. He taught that the heavens are dithe second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad, vine, and the stars celestial gods; and that, besides B.C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the these divinities, there are terrestrial demons of a midsuccessor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this dle order, between the gods and man, which partake time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it of the nature both of mind and body, and are thereshould seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-fore, like human beings, capable of passions and liable pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme- to diversity of character. (Diog. Laert., 4, 9, 10.— diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi- Plut. in Alex., vol. 5, p. 551. - Val. Max., 4, 3.tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con- Stob., Ecl. Phys., 1, 3.- Plut., de Is. et. Os., vol. 2, tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel- p. 157.-Enfield's Hist. Philos., vol. 1, p. 244, seqq.) ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom, II. A Greek physician of Aphrodisias, a work of but also for his virtues. (Val. Max., 2, 10.-Cic., ad whose is still remaining, on the aliment afforded by Att., 2, 16.- Diog. Laert., 4, 7.) So eminent was fishes. The best edition is that published at Naples his reputation for integrity, that when he was called in 1794, 8vo, and which is based upon the edition of upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in Franzius, which last appeared in 1774, Lips., 8vo. which an oath was usually required, the judges unan-(Sprengel, Hist. de la Med., vol. 2, p. 57.) imously agreed that his simple asseveration should be taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even a native of Colophon, and born, according to EusebiPhilip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt us, about B.C. 556. From some cause which is not him. When he was sent, with several others, upon related, Xenophanes early left his country and took an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in- refuge in Sicily, where he supported himself by retercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta-citing, at the court of Hiero, elegiac and iambic vertion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those who had come to him on embassies from foreign states, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert., 4, 8.) During the time of the Lamiac war, being sent an ambassador to the court of Antipater for the redemption of several Athenian captives, he was invited by the prince to sit down with him at supper, but declined the invitation in the words of Ulysses to Circe. (Odyss., 10, 383.) This pertinent and ingenious application of a passage in Homer, or, rather, the generous and patriotic spirit which it expressed, was so

XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleatic sect, was

ses, which he had written in reprehension of the Theogonies of Hesiod and Homer. From Sicily he passed over into Magna Græcia, where he took up the profession of philosophy, and became a celebrated preceptor in the Pythagorean school. Indulging, however, a greater freedom of thought than was usual among the disciples of Pythagoras, he ventured to introduce new opinions of his own, and in many particulars to oppose the doctrines of Epimenides, Thales, and Pythagoras. He possessed the Pythagorean chair of philosophy about 70 years, and lived to the extreme age of 100 years. In metaphysics, Xenoph

anes taught that if there ever had been a time when | The prince promised, if he would enter into his sernothing existed, nothing could ever have existed. That whatever is, always has been from eternity, without deriving its existence from any prior principle; that nature is one and without limit; that what is one is similar in all its parts, else it would be many; that the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe is immutable and incapable of change; that God is one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe, spherical in form; that he is of the same nature with the universe, comprehending all things within himself; is intelligent, and pervades all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind. (Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414.)

vice, to send him home in safety after his expedition against the Pisidians should have terminated. Xenophon, believing the intended expedition to have no other end than this, consented to take part in it, being equally deceived with Proxenus himself; for, of all the Greeks who accompanied Cyrus, Clearchus alone was from the beginning in the secret. The army of Cyrus marched from Sardis, through Lydia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Cappadocia, crossed the mountains of Cilicia, passed through Cilicia and Syria to the Euphrates, forded this river, passed through a part of Arabia and Babylonia, until they reached the plain of Cunaxa. After the fatal battle of Cunaxa and the XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl- fall of Cyrus, Xenophon advised his fellow-soldiers lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and rather to trust to their own bravery than surrender commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe themselves to the victor, and to attempt a retreat into geis, B.C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ., vol. 51, their own country. They listened to his advice; and, p. 370.) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the having had many proofs of his wisdom as well as courmost respectable characters among the disciples of age, they elected him one of the five new commanders, Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his chosen to supply the place of their former leaders, master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi- who had been entrapped and slain by Tissaphernes. losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten- Xenophon was appointed in the room of Proxenus, and tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and soon became the soul of all the movements of the private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck Greeks in their memorable retreat, acquiring great with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a glory by the prudence and firmness with which he confair form as a probable indication of a well-propor- ducted them back, through the midst of innumerable tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num- dangers. The particulars of this memorable advenber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar- ture are related by Xenophon himself, in his Anabasis, row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across or Retreat of the Ten Thousand. In retreating, the the path, and, stopping him, asked where those things object of the Greeks was to strike the Euxine; but were to be purchased which are necessary to human the error they committed was in making that sea exlife. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply to this tend too far to the east. From Cunaxa they turned unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him their course to the Tigris, crossed that river, marched where honest and good men were to be found. Xen- through Media, northward, still following the course ophon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow of the Tigris. They then crossed the mountains of me, and learn." From that time Xenophon became a the Carduchi, and, after great exertions, reached the disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that sources of the river just mentioned. After this they moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent. traversed Armenia, crossed the Euphrates not far from Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian its source, lost many of their number in the marshes war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun- through the cold and snow, and came to the Phasis, try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part Leaving this stream, they passed through the countries of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts, of the Taochi, Chalybes, Macrones, Colchians, and at saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also last reached the Greek colony of Trapezus on the fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved coast of the Euxine Sea. As there were not ships no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made enough there to receive them all, they determined to prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph., return home by land, and, marching along the coast of 1, 12) informs us that he attended the instructions of the Euxine, came to Chrysopolis opposite Byzantium. Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Boeotia. After having crossed over to the latter city, and been How his time was employed during the period which deceived by the promises of Anaxibius, the Spartan preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as- admiral, they entered into the service of Seuthes, king certained; it is more than probable, however, that he of Thrace, who had solicited their aid. This prince, was engaged during the interval in several campaigns, however, proving faithless, and paying them only a since the skill and experience displayed in conducting part of their stipulated recompense, they finally enthe retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar tered into the service of Thymbron, who had been diacquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty- rected by the Spartans to raise an army and make war three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus upon the satraps Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes. Acthe Boeotian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-cording to Xenophon, the whole distance traversed by tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en- the Greeks, both in going and returning, was 1155 ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother parasangs, or 34,650 stadia. The whole time taken of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-up was fifteen months, of which the retreat itself oced Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso- cupied less than eight.-Having returned to Greece, pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old Xenophon, after an interval of four or five years, joined pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and fought with him, not joining a prince who had shown himself disposed to only in Asia, but also against the Thebans at home, aid the Lacedæmonians in their war against Athens. in the battle of Coronea. The Athenians, displeased He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult at this alliance, brought a public accusation against the god about his intended scheme. Xenophon obey him for his former conduct in engaging in the service ed, but merely asked the oracle to which one of the of Cyrus, and condemned him to exile. The Spargods he ought to sacrifice and offer up vows in order tans, upon this, took Xenophon, as an injured man, unto ensure the success of what he was then meditating.der their protection, and provided him with a comfortFor this Socrates blamed him, but, nevertheless, ad- able retreat at Scilluns in Elis, making him a present vised him to do what the god had enjoined, and then of a dwelling there, with considerable land attached to take his departure. At Sardis, Xenophon met his to it. According to Pausanias (5, 6), they gave him friend Proxenus, and obtained, through him, an intro- the entire town of Scilluns. Here he remained, if we duction to Cyrus, by whom he was well received. I believe the same Pausanias, for the remainder of his

days, and in this retreat dedicated his time to literary and commerce. Plato (de Leg, 3-Op., vol. 8, p. pursuits. Xenophon himself has given us, in the Ana- 142, ed. Bip.) denies that Cyrus ópons raideias hobai, basis (5, 3, 7), an interesting account of his residence at and this statement is considered by Valckenaer to have Scilluns, where he erected a temple to the Ephesian Di- been directed against the representations of Xenoana, in performance of a vow made during the famous phon; and hence we need feel no surprise at the opretreat which he so ably conducted. In this place he position between the Banquet of Xenophon and that died, in the 90th year of his age. Pausanias, who vis- written by Plato. From Aulus Gellius (N. A., 14, 3) ited the ruins of Scilluns, states that the tomb of Xen- we discern some traces of this personal hostility beophon was pointed out to him, and over it his statue of tween these great philosophers. (Barker, de Xen, Pentelic marble. He adds, that when the Eleans took Cyrop., 1, 1.-Compare remarks under the article Scilluns, they brought Xenophon to trial for having ac- Plato.)-As regards the more received accounts relacepted the estate at the hands of the Spartans, but that tive to the elder Cyrus, the student is referred to that he was acquitted, and allowed to reside there without article itself.-Some modern critics have thought that molestation. The common account, however, makes Xenophon, in this work, is not as romantic in his dehim to have retired to Corinth when a war had bro- tails as he is commonly supposed to be, but that he ken out between the Spartans and Eleans, and to gives us the mode of education adopted in the case of have ended his days there. The integrity, the piety, the young Persians that belonged to a privileged caste, and the moderation of Xenophon rendered him an that of the warriors namely, and not the manner of ornament to the Socratic School, and proved how rearing which was common to the people at large. much he had profited by the precepts of his master. One thing at least is certain, that nothing in the CyroHis whole military conduct discovered an admirable pædia indicates the intention of its author to produce union of wisdom and valour. And his writings, at the a work of the imagination. Others have supposed same time that they have afforded, to all succeed- that Xenophon's object in writing the treatise in quesing ages, one of the most perfect models of purity, tion was to criticise the first two books of Plato's Resimplicity, and harmony of language, abound with sen- public, and that the latter retaliated in his third book timents truly Socratic. By his wife Phitesia Xeno- of laws by drawing a character of Cyrus quite different phon had two sons, Gryllus and Diodorus; the for- from that which Xenophon had depicted. (Consult mer of whom fell with glory in the battle of Manti-Aul. Gell., l. c., and, in relation to the Cyropædia gennea, after having inflicted a mortal wound on Epam-erally, the Dissertation of Fraguier, Mem. de l'Acad. inondas, the Theban commander. (Vid. Gryllus.) des Inscr., &c., vol. 2, p. 48.—Sainte-Croiz, Observa-The works of Xenophon, who has been styled, tions, &c., ibid., vol. 46, p. 399.—Baden, Opuscula from the sweetness and graceful simplicity of his lan- Latina, Havn., 1763, 8vo, n. 2.-Damm, Berliner guage, the "Attic bee," are as follows: 1. 'Eλnviká | Monatschrift, 1796, vol. 1, p. 69.) Though the Cyro("Grecian History"), in seven books. In this work pædia be certainly the work of Xenophon, some doubts Xenophon gives a continuation of the history of Thu- have nevertheless arisen with respect to the latter part cydides, down to the battle of Mantinea. It was un-of the history, and which Valckenaer, Schneider, F. dertaken at an advanced age, amid the retirement of A. Wolfe, and many other modern scholars regard as Scilluns, and completed either there or at Corinth. the addition of some later writer, who wished to weakThe work is full of lacunæ and falsified passages. en the favourable impression towards the Persians The recital of the battle of Leuctra is not given with which the perusal of the main work could not fail to sufficient development, and it is evident that Xeno-produce. (Compare Schulz, De Cyropædia epilogo, phon relates with regret the victory of Epaminondas &c. Hal., 1806, 8vo.-Bornemann, Epilog. der Cyreover his adopted country. Xenophon does not imitate pædie, &c., Leipz., 1819. 8vo.)—4. Áóyos ɛiç Aynoiin this production the manner of Thucydides. That λaov ("Eloge on Agesilaus"). Xenophon had folof Herodotus accorded better with his general char-lowed this prince in his expedition into Asia, and had acter as a writer, and had more analogy to the style been an eyewitness of his victories in that country. of eloquence that marked the school of Isocrates, He had accompanied him also in his Grecian camof which Xenophon had been a disciple.-2. 'Avúba-paigns, and his attachment to this eminent commander ois ("The Expedition into Upper Asia"), otherwise was the secret cause of his banishment from Athens. called "the Retreat of the Ten Thousand." Xeno-No one, therefore, was better qualified to write the biphon, as has already been remarked, bore a large shareography of this celebrated Spartan. Cicero, in speakin this glorious expedition. His narrative, written ing of this work of Xenophon's, says that it surpasses with great clearness and singular modesty, forms one all the statues ever erected to the Lacedæmonian of the most interesting works bequeathed to us by an- monarch (Ep. ad Fam., 5, 12); and yet some modern tiquity.-3. Kúpov Пaideia (" The Education of Cy-critics, with Valckenaer at their head, have regarded rus"). This work not only gives a view of the earlier this piece of biography as below the standard of Xenyears of Cyrus the Great, but also of his whole life, ophon's acknowledged abilities as a writer, and the and of the laws, institutions, and government employ-production of some sophist or rhetorician of a subseed by him at home and abroad, in peace and in war. quent age.-5. 'Anoμvпμоvevμатa Zwkpárovę (“ MeDionysius of Halicarnassus (Ep. ad Cn. Pomp.-moirs of Socrates"), the best of Xenophon's philoOp., vol. 6, p. 777, ed. Reiske) characterizes the work sophical works. It gives, first, a justification of Socas the εικόνα βασιλέως ἀγαθοῦ καὶ εὐδαίμονος, and rates against the charge of having introduced strange Cicero (Ep. ad Q. Fr., 1, 1, 8) warns us not to con- deities instead of worshipping the national ones, and sider this treatise as constructed with historic faith, of having corrupted the young by his example and but as a mere pattern of just government. In fact, maxims. It then goes on to adduce various converthe Cyropædia is less a history than a species of his-sations between Socrates and his disciples on topics of torical romance. Cyrus is represented to us as a wise a moral and religious nature. (Consult Dissen, De phiand magnanimous, a just, generous, and patriotic king;losophia morali in Xenophontis de Socrate commentaas a great and experienced, a prudent and invincible riis tradita, Gött, 1812) This work, written with commander; a bright exemplar to those who are called to wield the military energies of nations, to defend their father-land from hostile aggression, to conquer on a foreign soil the enemies of their country, to enlarge the boundaries of their empire, and to diffuse over subject millions the blessings of civil order and peaceful industry, of extended manufactures, trade,

singular grace and elegance, offends in many instances against the rules and the form of the dialogue, and becomes, on these occasions, an actual monologue. It is divided into four books, but is thought to have been anciently more voluminous.-6. Zwkpárovę 'AñоÃOyía por тovç dikaσtás (" Defence of Socrates before his Judges"). This piece is not, as the titlo

the revenues of Attica, if well regulated, are sufficient for its population, without the need of the Athenians rendering themselves odious by exactions from their allies or subjects.-14. Aakɛdaiμovíwv noλireía (“ Government of the Lacedæmonians").—15. AOŋvaiav mohiтela (“ Government of the Athenians"). These two small works are very probably not Xenophon's.— We have also seven letters of this same writer.-The best editions of the works of Xenophon are, that of Schneider, Lips., 1800, reprinted at Oxford, 1812, 6 vols. 8vo, and that of Weiske, Lips., 1798–1802, 5 vols. 8vo. There are numerous editions also of the separate works, some very useful.-II. A Greek ro

tory are equally unknown. With the exception of Suidas, no ancient writer makes any mention of him, not even Photius, who has recorded the names of so many writers of the middling class. The Baron di Lacella places him in the age of the Antonines, and others in the fourth and fifth centuries. Peerlkamp, on the other hand, one of his editors, considers him to be the earliest of the Greek romancers, and fancies that he is able to detect the imitations of the rest. The same author affirms that Xenophon is an assumed name, and, farther, that no Greek romancer, with the exception of Heliodorus, has written in his real name. Mr. Dunlop, in his History of Fiction, mentions three Xenophons, who lived about the time of Chariton; but Chariton must have lived in or after the fifth century, at a distance of no less than 300 years from the time in which we have placed Xenophon, on the best authorities we can find. The three Xenophons, ac

indicates, a pleading delivered in the presence of his judges; neither is it a defence of himself, on the part of Socrates, against the vices and crimes laid to his charge; it is rather a development of the motives which induced the sage to prefer death to the humiliation of addressing entreaties and supplications to prejudiced judges. Valckenaer and Schneider consider the work unworthy of Xenophon. The former of these critics sees in this the production of the same individual who fabricated the latter part of the Cyropædia; while Schneider thinks that it once formed a portion of the Memoirs of Socrates, and that the grammarians, after detaching it from this work, falsified and corrupted it in many places.-7. Evμñóσiov piñoσó-mance writer, a native of Ephesus, whose era and hispov ("Banquet of Philosophers"). The object which Xenophon had in view in writing this piece, which is chef d'œuvre in point of style, was to place in the clearest light the purity of his master's principles relative to friendship and love, and to render a just homage to the innocence of his moral character. Some of the ancients were persuaded that Xenophon had another and secondary object, that of opposing his "Banquet" to Plato's dialogue which bears the same title, and in which Socrates had not been depicted, as Xenophon thought, with all the simplicity that marked his character. Schneider and Weiske, two celebrated commentators on Xenophon, as well as an excellent judge in matters of taste, the distinguished Wieland (Attische Museum, vol. 4, p. 76), have adopted this same opinion; but it has been attacked by two other scholars, Boeckh and Ast. The former believes that Plato wrote his dialogue after having read the Banquet of Xenophon, and that, in place of Socrates as he real-cording to Mr. Dunlop, were Antiochus, Cyprius, and ly was, the founder of the Academy wished to trace, under the name of this philosopher, the beau ideal of a true sage, such as he had conceived the character to be. (Commentatio Academica de simultate quæ Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur, Berol., 1811, 4to.) Ast goes still farther, and pretends to find in the Banquet of Xenophon sure indications of its having been one of the works of his youth. (Ast, Platons Leben und Schriften, p. 314.)-8. 'Iépwv Túpavvoç ("Hiero"), a dialogue between the Syracusan monarch and Simonides, in which Xenophon compares the troublesome life of a prince with the tranquil existence of a private individual, intermingling from time to time observations on the art of governing.-9. Oikovoμкòç λóyoç (“Discourse on Economy"). This piece is in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and Critobulus, son of Crito, and one of his disciples. Some critics have regarded it as the fifth book of the Memoirs. It is less a theory of, than a eulogium on, rural economy, or, in other words, a treatise on morality as applied to rural and domestic life. It contains also some interesting and instructive details relative to the state of agriculture among the XERXES, I. son and successor of Darius Hystaspis on Greeks: we find in it, likewise, some anecdotes re- the throne of Persia. He was, in fact, the second son specting the younger Cyrus. Cicero translated this of that monarch, but the first born unto him of Atossa, work into Latin, and Virgil has drawn from it the ma- the daughter of Cyrus, whom Darius had married after terials for some passages in his Georgics.-11. IIɛpì he came to the throne. The elder son was Artabanus, ITIKIS ("On the Knowledge of Horses"). A very born unto Darius while yet in a private station. The useful treatise, in which Xenophon makes known the two princes contended for the empire, Artabanus marks by which a good horse may be discovered. grounding his claim on the common law of inheritance, He cites, abridges, and completes the work of a cer- Xerxes, the younger, on his descent from the founder tain Simon, who had written on this subject before him. of the monarchy. Demaratus, the exiled king of -11. 'ITπаρXLкóç (“Hipparchicus, or the duties of an Sparta, aided Xerxes with his counsels, and suggestofficer of cavalry"). After having said something re-ed to him another argument, drawn from the Spartan specting the knowledge of horses necessary for an officer of cavalry to have, Xenophon lays down the rules that ought to guide in the selection of the officer himself, and then traces the general duties appertaining to the station. 12. KuvnyεTIKós ("Of the chase"). A eulogium on the exercise of hunting, after which Xenophon unfolds the theory of the sport. -13. Ilópoι Tτερì проσódшv ("On the revenues of Attica"). The object of this treatise is to show that

Ephesius, and their works, "Babylonica," "Cypriaca," and " Ephesiaca.' Of these, only the last has been published. It is entitled 'Epeoiakà tà katà 'Avoiav kaì 'Abpoкóμnv (" Ephesiacs, or the Loves of Abrocomes and Anthia"). The story is commonplace, and yet improbable; but the style is simple, and the action busy without confusion. For a long time the existence of this work was denied. In the fifteenth century, Angelo Poliziano quoted a passage from this romance; but the incredulity of the learned was still manifested two centuries after. At length, in 1726, an Italian translation was published by Antonio Maria Salvini, and in the same year the Greek text appeared in print. Even this, however, was insufficient; for, eight years after, we find Lenglet du Fresnoy, in his pseudonymous work on the customs of the Romans, asserting that "neither the original Greek, nor any other version," was known. The best edition of Xenophon of Ephesus is that of Peerlkamp, Harlem, 1818, 4to. There is also a good edition by Passow, Lips., 1833, 12mo. (Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. 5, p. 124, seqq.)

rule of succession, by which a son born after the ac cession of a king was preferred to his elder brother. Darius decided in his favour, and declared him his heir; swayed, perhaps, much more by the influence of Atossa, which was always great with him, than by reason or usage. In the following year (B.C. 485), before he had ended his preparations against Egypt and Attica, he died, and Xerxes ascended the throne. Thus the Persian sceptre passed from the hands of a

prince who had acquired it by his boldness and pru- doubled activity, to raise an armament worthy of the dence, to one born in the palace, the favourite son of presence of the king. His aim was not merely to colthe favourite queen, who had been accustomed, from lect a force sufficient to ensure the success of his unhis infancy, to regard the kingdom as his inheritance, dertaking, and to scare away all opposition, but also, perhaps to think that the blood of Cyrus which flowed and perhaps principally, to set his whole enormous in his veins raised him above his father. Bred up in power in magnificent array, that he might enjoy the the pompous luxury of the Persian court, among slaves sight of it himself, and display it to the admiration of and women, a mark for their flattery and intrigues, he the world. For four years longer Asia was still kept in had none of the experience which Darius had gained restless turmoil: no less time was needed to provide in that period of his life when Syloson's cloak was a the means of subsistence for the countless host that welcome present. He was probably inferior to his was about to be poured out upon Europe. Besides father in ability; but the difference between them in the stores that were to be carried in the fleet which fortune and education seems to have left more traces was to accompany the army, it was necessary that in their history than any disparity of nature. Ambi- magazines should be formed along the whole line of tion was not the prominent feature in the character of march as far as the confines of Greece. But, in addiXerxes; and, had he followed his unbiased inclina- tion to these prudent precautions, two works were betion, he would, perhaps, have been content to turn the gun, which scarcely served any other purpose than that preparations of Darius against the revolted Egyptians, of showing the power and majesty of Xerxes, and proand have abandoned the expedition against Greece, to ving that he would suffer no obstacles to bar his progwhich he was not spurred by any personal motives. ress. It would have been easy to transport his troops But he was surrounded by men who were led by vari- in ships over the Hellespont; but it was better suited ous passions and interests to desire that he should to the dignity of the monarch, who was about to unite prosecute his father's plans of conquest and revenge. both continents under his dominion, to join them by a Mardonius was eager to renew an enterprise in which bridge laid upon the subject channel, and to march he had been foiled through unavoidable mischance, not across as along a royal road. The storm that had dethrough his own incapacity. He had reputation to re-stroyed the fleet which accompanied Mardonius in his trieve, and might look forward to the possession of a unfortunate expedition, had made the coast of Athos great European satrapy, at such a distance from the terrible to the Persians. The simplest mode of avoidcourt as would make him almost an absolute sover- ing this formidable cape would have been to draw eign. He was warmly seconded by the Greeks, who their ships over the narrow, low neck that connects the had been drawn to Susa by the report of the approach-mountain with the mainland. But Xerxes preferred ing invasion of their country, and who wanted foreign to leave a monument of his greatness and of his enaid to accomplish their designs. The Thessalian terprise, in a canal cut through the isthmus, a distance house of the Aleuads, either because they thought of about a mile and a half. This work employed a their power insecure, or expected to increase it by be- multitude of men for three years. The construction coming vassals of the Persian king, sent their emissa- of the two bridges which were thrown across the Helries to invite him to the conquest of Greece. The ex- lespont was intrusted to the skill of the Phoenicians iled Pisistratids had no other chance for the recovery and Egyptians. When these preparations were drawof Athens. They had brought a man named Onomac-ing to a close, Xerxes set forth for Sardis, where he ritus with them to court, who was one of the first designed to spend the following winter, and to receive among the Greeks to practise an art, afterward very the re-enforcements which he had appointed there to common, that of forging prophecies and oracles. join the main army (B.C. 481). During his stay at While their family ruled at Athens, he had been de- Sardis, the Phoenician and Egyptian engineers comtected in fabricating verses, which he had interpolated pleted their bridges on the Hellespont; but the work in a work ascribed to the ancient seer Musæus, and was not strong enough to resist a violent storm, which Hipparchus, before his patron, had banished him from broke it to pieces soon after it was finished. How far the city. But the exiles saw the use they might make this disaster was owing to defects in its construction, of his talents, and had taken him into their service. which might have been avoided by ordinary skill and They now recommended him to Xerxes as a man who foresight, does not appear. But Xerxes is said to possessed a treasure of prophetical knowledge, and the have been so much angered by the accident that he young king listened with unsuspecting confidence to put the architects to death. Such a burst of passion the encouraging predictions which Onomacritus drew would be credible enough in itself, and is only renderfrom his inexhaustible stores. These various engines ed doubtful by the extravagant fables that gained credat length prevailed. The imagination of Xerxes was it on the subject among the Greeks, who, in the bridginflamed with the prospect of rivalling or surpassing the ing of the sacred Hellespont, saw the beginning of a achievements of his glorious predecessors, and of ex-long career of audacious impiety, and gradually transtending his dominion to the ends of the earth. (Herod., forined the fastenings with which the passage was final7,8.) He resolved on the invasion of Greece. First, ly secured into fetters and scourges, with which the however, in the second year of his reign, he led an army barbarian, in his madness, had thought to chastise the against Egypt, and brought it again under the Persian aggression of the rebellious stream. The construcyoke, which was purposely made more burdensome and tion of new bridges was committed to other engineers, galling than before. He intrusted it to the care of his perhaps to Greeks; but their names have not passed brother Achæmenes, and then returned to Persia, and down, like that of Mandrocles. By their art two firm bent all his thoughts towards the West. Only one of and broad causeways were made to stretch from the his counsellors, his uncle Artabanus, is said to have neighbourhood of Abydus to a projecting point in the been wise and honest enough to endeavour to divert him opposite shore of the Chersonesus, resting each on a from the enterprise, and especially to dissuade him from row of ships, which were stayed against the strong currisking his own person in it. If any reliance could be rent that bore upon them from the north by anchors placed on the story told by Herodotus about the de- and by cables fastened to both sides of the channel; liberations held on this question in the Persian cabinet, the length was not far short of a mile. When all was we might suspect that the influence and arts of the in readiness, the mighty armament was set in motion. Magian priesthood, which we find in this reign rising Early in the spring (B.C. 480), Xerxes began his march in credit, had been set at work by the adversaries of from Sardis, in all the pomp of a royal progress. The Artabanus to counteract his influence over the mind baggage led the way: it was followed by the first diof his nephew, and to confirm Xerxes in his martial vision of the armed crowd that had been brought tomood. The vast preparations were continued with re-gether from the tributary nations; a motley throng, in