form; and men of high civil and ecclesiastical rank had inveighed against existing abuses. Though Henry VIII. at first remained faithful to the Roman Catholic church, and even wrote a book against the German reformer, he afterward, for personal and selfish reasons, withdrew his support, and encouraged the reformatory work of his ministers and of parliament. In 1534 the Act of Supremacy was passed, by which the king was made the supreme head of the Church of England, and empowered to " repress and amend all such errors and heresies as, by any manner of spiritual jurisdiction, might and ought to be lawfully reformed." 53. Relation to Literature.— Without attempting to trace the general effects of the Reformation in England - a factor that enters with a molding influence into all the subsequent history of the country - some of its immediate results upon English literature are briefly indicated. In 1526 Tyndale published his translation of the New Testament, which was followed soon afterward by other portions of the Bible. Nearly every year, for half a century, saw a new edition issue from the press. Tyndale's translation was made with great ability, and served as the basis of subsequent versions until, in 1611, King James's version, embodying all the excellences of previous efforts, gained general acceptance. Latimer, whose vigorous sermons advanced the cause of the Reformation in different parts of England, is a type of the unbroken line of able preachers whose influence since upon the social, moral, and intellectual life of the English people cannot be estimated. Religious services were conducted in English; and in 1549 the "Book of Common Prayer," which has been absorbed into the life of succeeding generations, was published, and its use, to the exclusion of all other forms, prescribed by law. 54. Old English Ballads.-There are a few productions and a few writers prior to the accession of Elizabeth that well deserve mention. It was during the period between Chaucer and the "Virgin Queen" that the most famous of the old English ballads were written. In their simplicity, directness, and often crudeness of style, they possess a charm that a more cultivated age cannot successfully imitate. Not a few of them celebrate the fearless conflicts of the Scottish border and the lawless deeds of bold freebooters. Unwritten songs of the people of the "good yeomanry" they invoke blessings upon -they were recited by wandering minstrels, and handed down by tradition from generation to generation. In most cases their authors are unknown; and constantly undergoing changes and receiving additions, they may be said, not to have been composed, but to have grown. In them the rude life of the times the lawlessness, daring, fortitude, passion - is graphically depicted. 66 55 Chevy Chase.- Among the best known of these ballads is Chevy Chase," which describes with great simplicity and force a battle between Lord Percy of England and Earl Douglas of Scotland. "I never heard the old song of Percy and Douglas," wrote Sir Philip Sidney in his "Defense of Poesie," that I found not my heart moved more than with a trumpet." Of a later version Addison wrote an interesting critique in the Spectator. In its oldest form the ballad begins as follows: 66 "The Persè owt off Northombarlande, And a vowe to God mayd he, That he wolde hunte in the mountayns In the mauger of doughtè Dogles, 56. Robin Hood.- Robin Hood, the bold outlaw of Sherwood forest, is the centre of an interesting group of ballads. For a long time he was the people's ideal hero. Sir Walter Scott called him "the gentlest thief that ever was." But his popularity, surpassing that of any English king of the time, was due, not to his deeds of violence, but to his courage, love of fair play, and open-handed generosity. His sympathies were with the yeomanry; he took the part of the oppressed; he robbed the rich to give to the poor; and though a good Catholic, who would hear three masses every day, he hated the extortions of bishops and monks. There is no rancor in Robin Hood's fighting. He looks upon it as a manly test of strength, and with Saxon honesty disdains to take any unfair advantage. He jokes with his antagonist, and after the fight is over takes him by the hand and receives him into the friendship of frank and fearless men. 57. Sir Thomas More. There is a writer of prose in the pre-Elizabethan period who produced works still possessing considerable interest. Sir Thomas More, who was called in his day the greatest wit in England, was born in 1478. He studied Greek at Oxford under Linacre and Grocyn, enthusiastic devotees of the new learning. His "Life of Edward the Fifth " surpassed in clearness and purity of style any English prose that had preceded it. But the work on which his fame as an author chiefly rests is his "Utopia "— the land of Nowhere — which contributed a new word to our language. What is chimerical or fanciful we now characterize as Utopian. The "Utopia," like Plato's "Republic," which probably furnished the idea, is a description of an ideal commonwealth. It is a satire on the existing state of society, its leading political and social regulations being the reverse of what was then found in Europe. 58. Surrey and Wyat.-Among the pre-Elizabethan poets there are two that deserve particular mention for the important influences they exerted on English literature. To Surrey belongs the merit of being the first to introduce blank verse and the sonnet into English poetry, both of which he borrowed from Italy. While sharing with Surrey the honor of introducing the Italian sonnet into English verse, Wyat has the distinction of conforming strictly with his models. All his sonnets, unlike those of his friend, are constructed according to the rules now governing that difficult species of verse. "In the latter end of the same king (Henry the eight) reigne," says an old writer, "sprong up a new company of courtly makers of whom Sir Thomas Wyat the elder and Henry Earle of Surrey were the two chieftains, who having travailed into Italy, and there tasted the sweete and stately measures and stile of the Italian Posie, as novices newly crept out of the schools of Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch, they greatly pollished our rude and homely manner of vulgar Poesie, from that it had bene before, and for that cause may justly be sayd the first reformers of our English meetre and stile." 59. The Elizabethan Age.- Coming now to the age of Elizabeth, to which has been given the designation of the First Creative Period, we find that literature suddenly rises in amount and excellence. The forces slowly accumulating for a century quickly burst into blossom. The number of writers, embracing every department of literature, is almost beyond estimate. Translations from the Latin, Greek, and Italian are numerous. It was at this time that Chapman's celebrated version of Homer -"romantic, laborious, Elizabethan -appeared. Poetry, in almost all its forms, is cultivated with monumental assiduity and success. Theology, as in Foxe's "Book of Martyrs" and Hooker's "Ecclesiastical Polity," naturally claimed, in this age of religious agitation, no small share of attention. Education, history, and philosophy, as we shall see, were all treated in noteworthy productions. Stories of travel and adventure, tales of romance, and dramas of every description were all very popular. The writings in these various departments are, for the most part, in a style that far surpasses anything that had preceded them, reflecting a higher order of culture than England had previously enjoyed. It was an age as extraordinary in its literary as in its political activity. Apart from the three great writers - Spenser, Bacon, and Shakespeare reserved for special study, there are a few others who, on account of writings of permanent interest, deserve at least brief consideration. 60. Sir Philip Sidney.- Scarcely any other writer of the Elizabethan era awakens greater interest than Sir Philip Sidney. Of noble birth, he was a distinguished scholar, a brave soldier, a promising statesman, a favored courtier, and a brilliant author in both prose and poetry. His conception of chivalry was "high-erected thoughts seated in a heart of courtesy "; and no other man of his time came nearer embodying in his life and character this lofty ideal. In 1581 Sidney composed his "Defense of Poesie," in reply 66 to the attacks of Puritans, who had stigmatized poets as caterpillars of the commonwealth." This work, which is still read with interest, shows a clear appreciation of the function of poetry, and presents its arguments with manly clearness and force. There is an absence of affected conceits, and the Euphuists are explicitly condemned. "For now," he says, "they cast sugar and spice upon every dish that is served to the table; like those Indians, not content to wear earrings at the fit and natural place of the ears, but they will thrust jewels through their nose and lips, because they will be sure to be fine." He pronounces the poet "monarch of all sciences. For he doth not only show the way, but giveth so sweet a prospect into the way as will entice any man to enter into it." men Sir Walter Raleigh.- Soldier, sailor, courtier, statesman, historian, poet- these are the different characters in which Sir Walter Raleigh appears. In that age of great when Spenser, Shakespeare, and Bacon were rendering England famous in literature, and Hawkins, Frobisher, and Drake were making her powerful on the sea the figure of Raleigh is not dwarfed. In the momentous events of the time, which involved all subsequent history; in the conflicts between Roman supremacy and Protestant independence; in the contest with Spain which was to decide the sovereignty of the seas and the peopling of the new world, he had, as counsellor of the queen and admiral of the fleet, no insignificant share. His versatility of genius was almost unexampled; and to whatever form of activity he turned his attention, he exhibited efficiency and achieved distinction. His capacious mind was equally at home in devising a comprehensive state policy, in managing practical details, and in cultivating the graces of lit erature. 62. His "History of the World."- With the death of Elizabeth in 1603 his fortunes began to decline. He incurred the displeasure of James I. First deprived of his offices, he was finally imprisoned on a charge of conspiracy. In spite of his innocence, eloquent defence, and admirable bearing, he was adjudged guilty and sentenced to death. The king did not venture to execute the sentence; and after being brought on the |