the different rules, so that the pupil, while engaged in numerical calculations, may at the same time be increasing his stock of general knowledge-and that questions of a trivial nature, which are only intended to puzzle and perplex, without having any practical tendency, be altogether discarded. In many of our arithmetical books for the use of schools, questions and exercises, instead of being expressed in clear and definite terms, are frequently stated in such vague and indefinite language, that their object and meaning can scarcely be appreciated by the teacher, and far less by his pupils; and exercises are given which have a tendency only to puzzle and confound the learner, without being capable of being applied to any useful object or operation. Such questions as the following may be reckoned among this class. Suppose £2 and έ of of a pound sterling will buy 3 yards and 3 of 3 of a yard of cloth, how much will of of a yard cost?" "The number of scholars in a school was 80; there were one half more in the second form than in the first; the number in the third was of that in the second; and in the fourth, of the third. How many were there in each form?"

In some late publications, such as "Butler's Arithmetical Exercises," and "Chalmers' Introduction to Arithmetic," a considerable variety of biographical, historical, scientific, and miscellaneous information is interspersed and connected with different questions and exercises. If the facts and processes alluded to in such publications, were sometimes represented by accurate pictures and delineations, it would tend to give the young an interest in the subject of their calculations, and to convey to their minds clear ideas of objects and operations, which cannot be so easily imparted by mere verbal descriptions: and consequently, would be adding to their store of general information. The expense of books constructed on this plan, ought to be no obstacle in the way of their publication, when we consider the vast importance of conveying well defined conceptions to juvenile minds, and of rendering every scholastic exercise in which they engage interesting and delightful.

SECTION V.-Grammar.

Grammar, considered in its most extensive sense, being a branch of the philosophy of mind, the study of it re

quires a considerable degree of mental exertion; and is, therefore, in its more abstract and minute details, beyond the comprehension of mere children. Few things are more absurd and preposterous than the practice, so gene rally prevalent, of attempting to teach grammar to children of five or six years of age, by making them commit to memory its definitions and technical rules, which to them are nothing else than a collection of unmeaning sounds. In most instances they might as well be employed in repeating the names of the Greek characters, the jingles of the nursery, or a portion of the Turkish Alcoran. The following is the opinion of Lord Kaimes on this point. "In teaching a language, it is the universal practice to begin with grammar, and do every thing by rules. I affirm this to be a most preposterous method. Grammar is contrived for men, not for children. Its natural place is between language and logic; it ought to close lectures on the former, and to be the first lectures on the latter. It is a gross deception that a language cannot be taught without rules. A boy who is flogged into grammar rules, makes a shift to apply them; but he applies them by rote like a parrot. Boys, for the knowledge they acquire of a language, are not indebted to dry rules, but to practice and observation. To this day, I never think without shuddering, of Disputer's Grammar, which was my daily persecution during the most important period of my life. Deplorable it is that young creatures should be so punished, without being guilty of any fault, more than sufficient to produce a disgust at learning, instead of promoting it. Whence then this absurdity of persecuting boys with grammar rules?".

In most of our plans of education, instead of smoothing the path to knowledge, we have been careful to throw numerous difficulties and obstacles in the way. Not many years ago, we had two characters for the letter s, one of them so like the letter f, that, in many cases, the difference could not be perceived. We had likewise compound letters joined together in such an awkward manner, that the young could not distinguish them as the same letters they had previously recognised in their separate state; so that, in addition to the ungracious task of learning the letters of the alphabet in their insulated state, under the terror of the lash, they had to acquire the names and figures of a new set of characters, before they could peruse the simplest lessons in their primers. Such

characters, it is to be hoped, are now for ever discarded. We have still, however, an absurd practice in our dictionaries and books of reference, which tends to perplex not only our tyros, but even our advanced students, when turning up such works-I mean the practice of confounding the letters I and J, and the letters U and V, which are as distinct from each other as a vowel is from a consonant; so that all the words beginning with J must be sought for under the letter I, and the words beginning with V, under the letter U, causing to every one a certain degree of trouble and perplexity, when searching for words beginning with any of these letters. Most of our school Dictionaries and Encyclopedias are still arranged on this absurd principle which should now be universally discarded.

In the construction of our books of Grammar for the use of children,-instead of facilitating this study, we have done every thing to render it as dry and intricate as possible. We have definitions, general rules, exceptions to these rules, declensions and conjugations, profusely scattered throughout every part of these scholastic manuals, and a cart load of syntactical rules and examples, all of which must of course be crammed, like a mass of rubbish, into the memories of the little urchins, although they should not attach a single correct idea to any portion of such scholastic exercises. Nothing can be more simple than the English verb, which, unlike the Greek and Latin verb, has only two or three varieties in its termination; yet, we perplex the learner with no less than six different tenses the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the future perfect,-while nature and common sense point out only three distinctions of time in which an action may be performed; namely, the past, the present, and the future, which of course are subject to a few modifications. On the same principle on which we admit six tenses, we might introduce nearly double that number. Hence a celebrated grammarian, Mr. Harris, in a dissertation on this subject, enumerates no fewer than twelve tenses. It is quite easy to make a child understand that a man is now striking a piece of iron with a hammer, that he did the same thing yesterday, and will perform the same action to-morrow,-in other words that an action was performed at some past time, is performing now, or will be performed at some future period; but it is almost impossible to convey to his mind a clear idea of twelve, or even of six tenses, although a hundred distinctions and definitions

should be crammed into his memory. A disposition to introduce quibbling and useless metaphysical distinctions has been the bane of theology, and one of the causes of the divisions of the Christian church. A similar disposition has rendered grammar perplexing and uninteresting to young minds, and prevented them from understanding or appreciating its nature and general principles. By attempting too much, in the first instance-by gorging their memories with all the distinctions, modifications, and rules, which grammarians have thought proper to inculcate,-we have produced a disgust at the study, when, by attempting nothing more than they were able clearly to comprehend, we might have rendered it both delightful and instructive. There are, properly speaking, no oblique cases in English nouns, excepting the possessive case; and yet, in some grammars, we have six cases specified, similar to those of Latin nouns; and in almost every book on grammar, three cases at least are considered as belonging to English nouns. On the same principle, we might affirm that there are as many cases as there are prepositions in the language; for every combination of a preposition with a noun forms a distinct relation, and consequently may be said to constitute a distinct case. Were it expedient in this place, many such remarks might be offered in reference to the absurdities and intricacies of our grammatical systems, and the perplexing and inefficient modes by which a knowledge of this subject is attempted to be communicated..

In communicating to the young a knowledge of grammar, or of any other subject, that plan which is the easiest and the most interesting should of course be adopted. All intricate and abstruse definitions and discussions ought to be avoided, and nothing attempted but what is level to their comprehensions, and which may be illustrated and explained by sensible images and representations. In endeavoring to impart a general idea of the elements of grammar, I would, in the first instance, lead the pupils to a position where they would have a distinct view of an extensive landscape, where they might see either ships. sailing, birds flying, windmills in motion, men digging the ground, or working with saws and hammers, carriages moving, or reapers cutting down the corn. I would then

inform them (if they are acquainted with numbers,) that there are about fifty thousand words in the English language, but that they may be reduced to about eight differ

ent classes* or kinds; or, in other words, that all the words they see in the different books that come into their hands, however numerous they may appear, may be arranged into these classes. I would next tell them that one of these kinds of words is called nouns, or terms which express the names of all kinds of objects, and desire them to point out, in the landscape before them, some of those objects designated nouns. They would find no difficulty in complying with such a requisition, and instantly, "a house, a tree, a ship, a church, a flower, a man, a horse," and similar names, would be cheerfully vociferated. They would next be told that certain qualities or properties belong to every object; that a house may be high or low, large or small, white, grey, or red—a tree, tall, thick, or slender that a feather is light-gold, heavy-butter, soft, &c.; and that the words, high, low, light, heavy, soft, &c. belong to that class termed adjectives, or words expressive of qualities. Some particular objects might then be mentioned, and the pupils requested to point out some of the qualities which they may possess. For example, Boy. After two or three qualities that a boy may possess are stated, they would soon apply the adjectives, good, bad, lazy, diligent, tall, handsome, mischievous, beautiful, and other qualities. A Table,round, oval, square, oblong, high, low, long, short, &c., adding the word table to each of these qualities. To diversify this exercise a little, a quality might be mentioned, and the pupils desired to name any objects to which it will apply. For instance, the quality Round,-when such answers as the following might be given, "A hat is round, a wafer is round, a saucer is round, a shilling is round, the sun and moon are round." In like manner, High, which applies to towers, mountains, trees, the clouds; and Soft, which applies to butter, dough, jelly, slime, pudding, snow, &c.

*The words in the English language have generally been arranged into nine classes, or "parts of speech;" but it appears almost unnecessary to consider the article and the interjection as distinct parts of speech, particularly the interjection, which is not necessary to the construction of a sentence, being only thrown in to express the emotion of the speaker. It is proper, however, that the nature and use of these words be explained to the young. Perhaps all the words essential to language might be arranged into the four following classes: Nouns, Attributives, (or adjec tives,) Affirmatives, and Connectives. Such arrangements, however, are of little importance, provided we convey a clear idea to those whom we instruct of the leading parts of speech which are essential to language, and be careful not to perplex their attention with too minute or unnecessary divisions.