gations, at the request of the people; 11, And does whatever pertains to the spiritual welfare of the churches under its care.

The presbyteries are required to keep a full record of their proceedings, and to report annually to the synod their doings, and the condition of their churches.

The presbytery meets at its own adjournment, and it is the duty of the moderator to call special meetings at the request of two ministers and two elders of different churches. The business of special meetings is specified in the circular letters calling them, and nothing else can be done. Presbyteries meet regularly twice a year, and require reports from all the sessions once a year.

Synods.

A synod consists of three or more presbyteries, and meets annually. Seven ministers, and as many elders, constitute a quorum, provided not more than three of the ministers belong to the same presbytery.

1,. The synod receives and issues all appeals from the presbyteries; 2, Decides concerning references; 3, Reviews the records of presbyteries; 4, Redresses whatever is done by the presbyteries contrary to order; 5, Erects new presbyteries; 6, Divides or unites presbyteries; 7, And decides all questions of doctrine and discipline.

The synods keep a fair and full record of all their proceedings, and submit them annually to the inspection of the general assemblies.

The General Assemblies.

The general assembly is the highest Presbyterian church court, and consists of an equal delegation of ministers and elders from the presbyteries, in the following ratio :

1, Each presbytery of not more than twenty-four ministers sends one minister and one elder; 2, Each presbytery of more than twenty-four ministers sends two ministers and two elders;

and in a like proportion for larger numbers. The delegates to the general assembly are called commissioners, and are admitted on certificates from their presbyteries. Fourteen commissioners, one half of whom are ministers, constitute a quorum.

1, The general assembly receives and issues all appeals and references from the lower courts; 2, Reviews the records of synods; 3, Decides all questions of doctrine or discipline; 4, Bears testimony against error in doctrine, or immorality in practice, in any church or presbytery; 5, Erects new synods; 6, Corresponds with foreign churches; 7, Suppresses schisms; [8, In the case of the Old School Presbyterians, appoints church boards of missions, education, and religious publications;] 9, And superintends the concerns of the entire church.

All the church courts are opened and closed with prayer; and all above the church session appoint their moderators and clerks annually or semi-annually; or else have stated clerks holding office for an indefinite period, while the moderators are appointed annually in the case of the general assembly and synods, and semi-annually in that of the presbyteries.

The session is a permanent body, elected by the church. The presbyteries are representative bodies, with respect to the eldership, who attend as delegates from the sessions. The ministers in presbytery do not sustain a representative character. The synods are bodies of the same kind as presbyteries, only larger. General assemblies are representative bodies based on the presbyteries. The clerical commission in the general assembly represent the ministers in the presbyteries, and the eldership commissioners the presbyterial eldership.

The fundamental principles of Presbyterianism are those which relate to the eldership as church rulers, holding their offices for life; to the ministry as of a single order; to sessions as a court of church elders, and to presbyteries as a court of ministers and elders. All Presbyterian churches agree essentially in respect to the nature of these offices, and the functions of these courts. The most complete development of Presbyterianism is

under the general assemblies, and in large national establish

ments.

The Old School organization in this country is the most perfect, in having a system of church boards for the prosecution of general benevolent church objects. These are,

1, A board of foreign missions; 2, A board of domestic missions; 3, A board of education for the assistance of indigent candidates for the ministry; and, 4, A board of religious publications.

These boards are an important addition to the Presbyterian system of earlier years, and are engines of great denominational power and usefulness. They are one great cause of the remarkable success and prosperity of the Old School body, since the division and separation from the New.

Licentiates.

Presbyterianism admits but a single order of ministers, denominated pastors, evangelists and stated supplies, and, generally, ministers; sometimes bishops and elders. But it also admits a sub-order of licentiates, corresponding to deacons in Episcopal churches, who have authority to preach, but do not administer the church sacraments, nor pronounce the apostolic benediction.

Licentiates are candidates for the ministry, admitted to preach for the term of two years, or more, on trial, with a view to their being fully introduced into the ministry, after they shall have given sufficient evidence of their qualification for the work.

Candidates for licensure are required to sustain an examination by presbytery,

1, In the original languages of the Holy Scriptures; 2, The liberal arts and sciences; 3, Natural and revealed theology; and, 4, Ecclesiastical history and church government.

The ceremony of licensure is a lower grade of ordination, without the imposition of hands.

CHAPTER III.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESBYTERIANISM.

THE supreme authority in Presbyterian churches is vested in their highest church court. In those churches that have general assemblies it is vested in the general assembly. The standards of the two great national Presbyterian churches of the United States, the Old and New School, are the Westminster confession of faith, catechisms and discipline, construed more strictly by the Old School, and a little more liberally by the New. All licentiates give their assent to these at their licensure, and all ministers, elders and deacons, at their ordination.

The general assembly, which is supreme under these standards, both in respect to its judicial and legislative powers, has no power to alter these standards, without proposing specific alterations to the presbyteries, and obtaining the assent of a majority; so that the standards of the whole church are determined and amended by the general assembly, in conformity with the expressed will of the presbyteries alone, and by their authority.

Presbyterianism is sometimes described and advocated by its friends as a system of church republicanism. The elders are considered as representatives of the churches, and the churches are considered as administering their affairs, in all the church courts, on the representative principle. But this is an entire mistake. There is no representation of the church in the church courts. All those courts are established over the church, and are independent of it.

It is essential to a representative system, 1, That the representative should be appointed by the constituency which he rep-resents; and, 2, That he should be appointed for an occasion,

or a limited period, of a year, or a term of years, in order that,

as changes of opinion and feeling may occur in the constituency, their representative may be chosen so as faithfully to represent them.

Hence, in mixed governments, partly monarchical and partly republican, the representative branches of the government hold their offices for a year or term of years, and the monarchical for life. Civil magistrates, who are appointed for life, do not officiate as representatives of the people. By the single circumstance of having their appointments for life, they are placed above the people, and become their masters, instead of being their representatives and servants. Limited appointments are necessary to real representation in the persons appointed to hold offices either in church or state.

It is clear, therefore, that Presbyterianism is not, as is supposed by some, a system of church government on the principle of representation. The session is not a representative court, in which the elders represent the church. To make it such, the eldership ought to be appointed annually, or for a term of years. It is rather a court of monarchs, or aristarchs, who hold their office for life; a limited monarchy indeed, as so-called monarchies in the state usually are; but a real monarchy, nevertheless; or, more strictly, an aristarchy of rulers appointed for life, and ruling on the principle of elective aristarchy.

The ministers constitute a class of church rulers above the elders, as being the exclusive moderators of sessions. Their position as moderators is more influential and commanding than that of simple deliberators and voters, and, in having a casting vote in the case of a tie, they determine many of the most important questions that come before their sessions.

The presbyteries and synods are mixed courts. 1, Partly courts of ministers, consisting of all the ministers of certain districts; 2, Partly courts of the representatives of the eldership in church sessions, consisting of one delegate from each session. In theory the ministers and elders meet in these courts in equal numbers, or in as nearly equal numbers as may be. But