allowed them, which is presented to a commissioner | child is meeting with new companions, new modes of appointed by the Government for making titles, who government, and an increased number of objects, immediately orders a survey, and upon its return, makes which are exerting a strong influence, should be greata deed to the settler and the title passes direct from the er than before. Even if the privilege of a school be state to him. The law allows a married man to have enjoyed, the education of the children belongs, in a not exceeding a Sitio, equal to 4428 English acres; great degree, to the parent. By the parent, it must be and a single man with one fourth that quantity, with a commenced, carried forward, and completed. privilege of extending it to a Sitio when he gets mariied; and a foreigner marrying a Mexican woman is entitled to one third more. On receiving the deed from the Commissioner the colonist takes an oath to support the constitution and laws of the country, by which two acts he becomes a citizen. There is no tax on land nor on any other property, and the emigrants are allowed to introduce all articles for their own use free of duty.

New-York American.

PARENTAL EDUCATION.

Parents are the natural guardians of their children. To you is committed the protection and education of those whom God has given you; and you will be accountable for the faithfulness or unfaithfulness in which you perform this duty. You have strong obligations and high duties to society, to your country, and to your friends: but much stronger, and infinitely higher ones to yourselves, to your children, and your Creator. Every man and woman has the care of his or her own heart and ways, and the hearts and ways of those who are helpless and ignorant, but yet commi ted to their trust. Parents may receive liberty and protection from government-they may receive comforts and enjoyments from society, but from these sources they can receive but little aid in the primal education of their children. This is a work which belongs to them exclusively. To parents is entrusted the infant mind when it begins its immortal career.

But, from the supposed insensibility and incapacity of the child, during the three or four first years of its existence, parents often neglect the education, or the formation of the character, at that early but susceptible age. Many parents seem not to observe, that the infant commences acting and learning from the first moment of its existence. They see not that every look from its mother, every notice from its father, every animate and inanimate object which gets its attention, every sound and tone of voice, and family circumstance, are forming a character in the child, making impressions which will control and endure, and giving some kind of an education, either good or bad, which will influence the after-life.

Parents leave the education of their children too much with the schoolmaster. You appear to think, that providing your offspring with food and clothing is all that is required of you: the education, the formation of the character, you say, belongs to the teacher. This cannot be so. Your example, companions, opinions, and expressions, will all unite with the teacher's instructions. You should, instead of trusting all to the teacher, co-operate with him, unite your labours with his, and ascertain the influence of the teacher and the influence of the school upon the child. Do not speak unfavourably of the teacher before your children, but teach them to love the instructer and the school-room, and at all times to be obedient. If your children are under good government at home, it will greatly aid the teacher in managing them at school; but, if the government at home is bad, it will be difficult for the instructer to control their conduct, or establish any government over them during their school hours. You often complain of the defective government of the teacher, yet do not perceive that the children are under no restraint at home. You, perhaps, have indulged them in every whim and desire; subdued but few of their vicious inclinations; suffered them to grow up disobedient and inattentive; and now, how can you expect the teacher to bring them under an orderly, respectful behaviour at school? Do not find fault with the teacher, till you have examinedyour own government, and ascertained how far you have fitted them for obeying or disobeying others.

ASTRONOMY.

THE RAINBOW, OR IRIS.

Dist. School.

Nature, in all the varied aspects of her beauty, exhibits nothing more attractive than this phenomenon. Among the Hebrews this appearance was denoted by a word, which signifies the "Bow of God;" and among the Greeks, by one signifying "Daughter of Wonder." It never takes place but when a cloud, opposed to the shining sun, dissolves in rain, from which it follows that to observe this spectacle the back of the spectator must be turned towards the sun. Frequently there are two bows or arches; an inner one, in which the colours are more vivid, and an outer one in which they are paler. Each exhibits the same se

Parents who do nor perceive the wakeful attention and deep susceptibilities of early childhood, are not careful how they order their own conduct before their offspring, nor are they guarded in their expressions,ries of colours, as the image produced by the prism, and thus insensibly form a character which all their after-instruction and good example will never change. Parents should know the capacities of their children, -ascertain what passion or propensity is acquiring undue strength, and how far the child is capable of receiving wholesome restraint and moral instruction. They should see that circumstances, apparently for tuitous, often have great influence; if not carefully observed and diligently counteracted, they will give to the early character a strong bias, which will be unhappy in its tendency.

The

namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; but red is the uppermost colour in the interiour bow, and violet in the exteriour bow. Both the bows depend, though with some difference, upon the refraction of light combined with its reflection; and they are never seen but when the incident rays form, with the emergent rays, angles of certain magnitudes. The rays of light which render the inner bow visible are conveyed from the sun to the eye by two refractions, and one reflection; and those which show the outer bow, by two refractions and two reflections. The mother has the whole education of her child-rainbow had been often seen, and for ages had excited ren till they are three or four years old. During this both admiration and surprise, before any rational time she may stamp a character which will remain method of accounting for it had been proposed. through life. She may so moderate the passions, re- priests of some of the ancient idolaters always preferstrict the appetites, correct the desires, and obtain such red the wood on which the rainbow had appeared to a government over the child's mind and affections, as rest for the burning of their sacrifices, vainly supposing to form the most decided character. After the child that this wood had a perfume peculiarly agreeable to commences going to school, much of its time is still their deities. At length, Kepler, who lived in the spent with its parents. The duties of parents are re-sixteenth century, supposed that it might arise from lieved by the teacher but a short time. The watchful- the refraction of the sun's rays upon entering the rainness and care of the parent. at this period, when the drops; and Antonio de Dominis, a Dalmatian bishop,

The

ber, though in a form so much less imposing, than that | and longitudes of places) may be ascertained. This

of the last year, that many persons who were on the watch were not sensible of its occurrence. He states however that it did occur, and was attended by some remarkable peculiarities, though the presence of the moon, until about 4 o'clock in the morning, permitted only the larger meteors to be seen.

The number of the meteors was smaller than last year, though much above the common average. At one o'clock, a fireball of unusual splendour blazed forth in the east, like a signal, and they were subsequently seen to fall, at a pretty uniform rate, until the light of day was far advanced. Some fell in the southwest, and a few in the northwest, but by far the grea er number were in the eastern hemisphere.

The meteors appeared as before, to radiate from a common centre, in the constellation of Leo, and whereever they fell, their line of direction, if continued, would pass through that point. The radiant point was a little northward and westward of the place it occupied last year; and this point was not observed to vary in position for at least three hours; thus corresponding to the conclusions respecting the radiant of last year, from which it was inferred that the source of the meteors was beyond the influence of the earth's rotation, and consequently beyond its atmosphere.The meteors in general fell in arcs of great circles extending from the radiant point, but four were seen to ascend from it. One shot from Procyon toward the radiant; and three moved slowly in a horizontal direction from west to east, south of Orion and Canis major.

The Zodiacal light began to appear at 4 o'clock, and extended itself from the horizon upward, terminating near the place whence the meteors emanated. Professor Olmstead considers this as confirming his suggestion, made last year, that the shower of meteors is derived from the extreme portions of a nebulous body, which revolves round the sun, and comes to its phelion near the orbit of the earth about the 13th of November. It was on independent evidence, that the body affording this light, usually called Zodiacal, was inferred to be the nebulous body itself. At 19 minutes past 3 o'clock, a faintly luminous auroral cloud branched off from the extreme parts of the luminous pyramid and extended itself in a long zone, rounded at the vortex, towards the pole (or perhaps the magnetick pole ;) starting near Regulus, stretching across the head of Leo Minor, and terminating near Theta of the Great Bear. It began to fade in five minutes, and soon after disappeared.

depends entirely upon the supposition that the earth is
a spherical body situated in the middle or centre of
the concave or hollow sphere of the heavens, and that
every circle traced upon the globe of the earth has a
corresponding circle in the heavens.

We shall begin with the latitude of places.
Let A be any place upon the earth's surface, and
suppose in the annexed figure (fig. 5) that A prghe
Fig. 5.

H

e

E

is the meridian of A passing through p, the pole of the earth, and at right angles to the equator (e q.) the plane of the paper is the plane of the meridian, O the centre of the earth, p Oits semi-diameter, to which (e q,) the equator, is at right angles, H R the rational horizon of A. Then A e, the arc or angular distance of A from the equator measured upon the meridian of A, is the latitude of A. But e p, or the distance of the pole from the equator, is 90°, or a quadrant, and A r the distance of A from the point r, where the rational horizon meets the surface of the earth, is also 90°, or a quadrant. Hence ep is equal to Ar; if therefore Ap, which is common to both ep and Ar, be taken away from each, the remaining quantities A e and pr will be equal; and as A e is the latitude of A, it follows that (pr) or the height of the pole above the horizon is equal to the latitude of the place.

Again, A p is the distance of the pole from A: and as A e is the latitude of A, and p e is 90°, A p is the difference between 90° and the latitude, so that if A p be known, A e, or the latitude, is found, by substracting Ap from 90°. A p is called the complement of the latitude, or the co-latitude.

Again, A h is 90°, and, therefore, A e being the latitude, he is the co-latitude,-h e, being the height of the equator above the horizon; so that if he be known, the latitude is found by substracting he from 90°.

Mr. Olmstead concludes by stating one or two facts, in order, by comparison with the observation of others, that the height and velocity of these bodies may be estimated. At one minute before 4, meantime, a It appears, then, that if we can find any one of the bright meteor in the north, with a train, lasted one above four arcs, viz., A e, pr, Ap, he, the latitude of second. Its path was about 15° in length, at an angle A will be known: and the mode of determining these of 60° with the horizon, inclining to the west, and ter-arcs, is by measuring similar arcs of corresponding minating 10° beneath Zeta of the Great Bear. At 12 minutes past 4, another brilliant one described a path of 20° inclining to the west, at an angle of 75° with the horizon, and terminating near Beta Bootis, lasting at least two seconds. There were two others, whose paths were serpentine, and their light remarkably white, one of which described a path of at least of 25°, almost perpendicularly to the horizon, inclining to the west, and terminating 6° below Denehola.

GEOGRAPHY.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD OF
FINDING THE LATITUDE OF A PLACE.

Having fixed upon the two circles of position by a reference to which the position of a place is to be determined, it will now be necessary to explain how distances from each of these circles (being the latitudes

circles in the heavens. Let Z PRQHE be the circle in the heavens which corresponds with the meridian circle passing through A, and Z, P, R, Q, H, Æ, points in the heavens corresponding with A, p,r. q, h, e. The attention of the geographer is then transferred from the consideration of the several arcs Ae, pr, Ap, he, to the corresponding arcs in the circle in the heavens, ZE, PR, ZP, HÆ: for if any of these be determined in their number of degrees and parts of degrees, the latitude is found directly. Thus it is, that the geographer depends so much upon the science of astronomy for the solution of the most important geographical problems. Persons who are in the slightest degree acquainted with geometry, or with the most simple properties of the circle, will not object to the above-mentioned mode of determining the latitude of places on the earth by means of corresponding arcs in the heavens, that these corresponding arcs are of different magnitudes; for in computing the latitude, we

267

This angle is called parallax* of a heavenly body
and increases the zenith distance of s. It is obvious
that parallax produces a contrary effect upon Hs, the
altitude of s, and that as the zenith distance is in-
creased by the angle As O, so the horizontal distance
or altitude is diminished by the same angle. The
general effect therefore, of parallax is to depress a
heavenly body. If, however, the distance of the body
upon which an observation is made, be so great, that
it would be seen in exactly the same position in the
heavens by a spectator at the surface of the earth, and
one at the centre, it is evident that the angle s' ss" or
A s O (the parallax) would be so small as to escape
observation, and would, to our senses, vanish. This
is the case with the fixed stars; but with respect to the
sun and moon and planets, whose distances are not so
great, the parallax has an observable effect upon their
apparent positions, as they are seen from different parts
of the earth's surface, or from the earth's surface and
And this circumstance raises a necessity
its centre.
for correcting the observed distances of these heaven-
ly bodies from the zenith or horizon of a place, in
order to arrive at the true distance, as they would be
seen from the earth's centre, and that the respective
arcs Zs and Hs may be accurately measured. The
parallax is computed and given in astronomical tables,
for the purpose of making this requisite correction.
* From a Greek word, and thus applied, signifies simply a
change of place.

do not so much want the actual admeasurement and two lines drawn from the extremities of the earth's ralinear quantity of the arc of the meridian intercepted dius, or, in geometrical language, is the angle subtendbetween the given place and the equator, as the num-ed by the earth's radius, at the distance of the body s. ber of degrees and parts of a degree which it contains, or, in other words, the proportion which this intercepted are bears to the whole circumference of the meridian circle. And as arcs are the measures of angles, the arcs, ZE and A e, are both measures of the same angle at o; and, therefore, although they are unequal in magnitude, yet they mutually bear the same proportion to the circumference of the circles of which they are parts; that is, Z E contains the same number of degrees as Ae: and as the latitude of a place is always expressed in degrees and parts of degrees, the number of degrees contained in the arc in the heavens, Z, which corresponds with the arc of the meridian A e, will be the latitude of a. If, after having ascertained the latitude in this manner, that is, in degrees and parts of degrees, the actual linear magnitude contained in the latitude, or the geographical distance between A and the equator measured upon the Let meridian, be required, it may be obtained thus. an observer at A travel upon the same meridian in a direction due north or due south,(i. e. from or towards the equator,) until the pole star has, with respect to the observer's horizon, been raised or sunk one degree (which may be known from observation :) then as the star is itself stationary, this gain or loss of one degree in its station with respect to the horizon, has been caused by the observer having travelled exactly one degree, measured upon a meridian of the earth, nearer or farther from the north pole. If this space be actually measured, the result, expressed in linear measure, will give the magnitude of a degree of latitude in geographical miles and parts of a mile; the quantity thus found, being multiplied into the number of degrees and parts of a degree, will give the actual linear The process distance between A and the equator. thus conducted is on the supposition that the earth is perfectly spherical. A degree of latitude measured in this manner contains about sixty-nine miles.

AEROSTATICKS, OR THE ART OF FLYING. Thomas Walker, Portrait Painter, Hull, in 1810 wrote a treatise on the art of flying, by mechanical means; with a full explanation of the natural principles by which birds are enabled to fly: likewise instructions and plans for making a flying car with wings, in which a man may sit, and, by working a small lever, cause himself to ascend and soar through the air." This treatise was republished in this country in 1814: and the American publisher says he was induced to reprint it, "not from a belief in the importance or prac

How the spaces or arcs ZE, PR, ZP, HE in the heavens are to be measured by a spectator at the spot A on the surface of the earth, is now to be explained. This is done by means of observations made by the spectator at A, upon some heavenly body, with an instrument adapted for the purpose of measuring circular arcs: by these observations, which are made when the heavenly body is either upon the meridianticability of becoming aerial voyagers, but from an of the place or not, the angular distance of the body from the zenith or from the horizon is ascertained. Thus if s be the sun (see fig. 5.) on the meridian, its angular distance & Z from the zenith, (called its zenith distance,) or its angular distance s H from the horizon, (called its altitude,) is measured, and ascertained in degrees and parts of degrees.

opinion, that the ingenuity of argument, and the information it contains, are worthy of notice." We shall lay this subject and this author's argument, before our readers, with a belief that artificial flying is important, practicable and attainable. The scheme may be considered by others notably, visionary, and Utopian. So As, however, A is the place at which these obser- was that of sailing in balloons, so was that of Covations are made, the angle Z As is all that can be lumbus in reference to a new continent, and that of determined from observation; but this angle is not the measure of the arc Z s, because A is not the cen- Robert Fulton in the application of steam to boats and tre of the sphere of the heavens; but the angle Z Os is vessels, as a propelling power. In affirming our belief the proper measure of this arc, since, by the supposi- of the practicability of flying, we are supported by Lord tion, the meridian circle and the corresponding one in the heavens have the same centre, O; and it is a well Bacon, Mr. Willoughby, De Gusman, Bishop Wilkin, known truth in geometry, that the angle Z As is great- Friar Bacon, Reinser, the aforementioned Tom WalkThis er, and hundreds of others. A few years ago, and er than the angle Z Os by the angle AS o. conclusion, expressed in common language, may there- the scheme of making a passage from New York to fore be stated thus: that a spectator at A, looking upon Albany in ten hours, would have been denounced as a heavenly body at s, will see it lower down in the heavens, namely, at s', or farther removed from the Utopian as that of flying may be now by the incredulous. zenith point Z, than a spectator situated at the centre Yet that has been attained, and there is every probaof the earth, who would, at the same instant of time, bility, that Mr. Burden will be able to accomplish the see the same body at s"; the difference of the appa- same passage in six hours! Reasoning from these rent places which the body, s, will thus occupy in the wonderful improvements in the ease and rapidity of heavens, as seen from the surface of the earth, and as seen from the centre, is the angle s'ss", which is transitions upon the surface of the earth, why will not equal to the angle A's O. This angle is formed by the analogy furnish grounds for the belief, that tran

The first use of the wings is to expand, and by that means to give the bird a secure hold upon the air below of the wings. The tail produces the same effect. We it, which hold is always in proportion to the dimensions see that by means of a pair of wings and a tail duly expanded, in a perfectly passive state, and aloft in the air, without any muscular motion, a bird procures a suspending power, which counteracts the specifick gravity of its body, and prevents its being precipitated to the ground; such is the effect of the wings and tail when in a passive state.

He next takes some notice of the quill feathers. As they were intended to swim with in so light and subtle a formed of the lightest materials imaginable; and as fluid as the air is, it was necessary that they should be they were intended to strike upon the air with great power and rapidity, it was requisite that they should possess, in the shafts, great strength with elasticity; it was expedient too, that the quill feathers should separate and open, to let the upper air pass through the wings, to facilitate their ascent, when they are struck upwards; it was also necessary that they should all shut close together, forming each wing into a complete surface or web, when they are, by the muscular power of the bird, the air below, and by that means keep the bird up. forced down, in order to give a more secure hold upon

sitions through the atmosphere in a manner analogous to the passage of birds, may be likewise attained? A pruriency for the novel and the marvellous has pervaded men's minds from the beginning, in all ages and countries, but never more thoroughly than at the present notable period. The existing plans for travelling, and pleasure excursions seem to be however nearly perfected; and we see no other inlet for the inquisitive curiosity of the age, than to turn its uneasy eye to the consideration of that art which in its perfection promises to do for us without labour, what is now accomplished only by immeasurable toil; and to supersede entirely the necessity of using horses and carriages, the expense of slow railroads and steam boats, and the danger of sea voyages! If that daring which proclaims that some things may be done as well as others," or that eastern ingenuity, which declares "there is more than one way to the woods" should be able eventually to pass our sky in a trackless flight to some unexplored clime, demonstrating the perfectability of Aerostation, by actual and successful experiment, with what enthusiasm should we hail the enterprise ! With what avidity should we seek to accomplish ourselves in that art which would be the consummation of our early and devout wishes! For who from the days of the Conscript fathers, at one time or another, has not felt a longing, lingering inclination to fly? For our part, we hesitate not to confess, that at an early period in our personal history, we might have been observed attempting to "wing our eagle flight" from our father's corn-house stairs with a pair of the largest and tail in an active state.-When a bird, by the powHe then shows the application and effect of the wings turkey's wings among our good grandmother's collec-er of its pectoral and deltoid muscles, puts its wings tion in our hands, and turkey's tails affixed à la Daedalus to our feet. We acknowledge the experiment failed, and our misfortune although not Daedalian, was still a caution for the future; but we might find that apology in our youth, which Reinser the 2d did in his age; that, "at that age, we are not well qualified to engage in violent corporeal exertions?" But, because of the failure of these premature experiments, we should not lose sight of that happy period, which we would contemplate as a certainty in the future, when, as the famous Bishop Wilkin declares, it will become as common to hear a man call for his wings, when going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots and spurs. Relinquishing our own speculations however for the present, let us return to Thomas Walker, who treats the subject soberly, and reasons plausibly, as will be

seen.

Now if we do but examine the quill feathers, we shall find in the shafts astonishing strength with elasticity, and very little specifick gravity indeed. The webs shafts than the other, which causes them to open as the of the quill feathers are broader on one side of the wings move up, and to shut as they come down, exactly answering the purposes already mentioned; therefore, we see how wonderfully complete the wings are in all their parts, and how effectually they serve all the uses required.

into action, and strikes them downwards in a perfectly vertical direction upon the air below, that air being compressed by the stroke of the wings, makes a resistance, by its elastick power, against the under side of the wings, in proportion to the rapidity of the stroke and the dimensions of the wings, and forces the bird upwards; at the same time, the back edges of the wings being more weak or elastick than the fore edges, they give way to the resisting power of the compressed air, which rushes upwards past the same back edges, acting against them with its elastick power, and thereby causes a projectile force, which impels the bird forbird produces both buoyancy and progression. When wards; thus we see that by one act of the wings the the tail is forced upwards, and the wings are in action, the bird ascends, and forced downwards it consequently descends; but the most important use of the tail is to support the posteriour weight of the bird, and to prevent the vacillation of the whole.

The following observations upon the wonderful difference in the weight of some birds, with their apparent Mr. Thomas Walker states that his invention for at- means of supporting it in their flight, may tend to retaining the art of flying is founded entirely upon the move some prejudices against the plan, from the minds principles of nature. Assuming that the same cause of some readers. The weight of the humming bird is one drachm, that of the condor not less than four stone; will ever produce the same effect, he demonstrates that, now if we reduce four stone into drachms, we shall artificial wings constructed on philosophical principles, find the condor is 14,336 times as heavy as the humresembling those of birds, large enough, and to be ap-ming bird. Yet, by the same mechanical use of its plied in the same manner as birds apply them, and with sufficient will enable a man to fly as well as a bird. He then gives a history of the science of Aerostaticks, relating that De Guzman in 1709, invented a machine by which he was able to raise himself 200 feet in the air. And after giving an account of the Condor, the largest bird of S. America, he proceeds to describe the construction and application of the wings of a bird.

power,

wings, the condor can overcome the specifick gravity of its body with as much ease as the little humming bird. But this is not all; we are informed that this enormous bird possesses a power in its wings, so far exceeding what is necessary for its own conveyance through the air, that it can take up, and fly away with a whole would carry off, in the same manner, a hare or a rabbit. sheep in its talons, with as much ease as an eagle This we may readily give credit to, from the known fact of our little kestril, and the sparrow hawk, fre