Let us now consider more in detail the conditions for the development of these habits:

1. Thought-expression. - Manual training is of vital significance as a means of expression. Such materials of construction should be used as will facilitate the objectification of the pupils' thoughts. Thought and expression are practically one in the mind of the young child; hence the importance, at this stage, of furnishing every possible means of expression.

2. Habits of an ethical content. Manual training should be instrumental to acts of an ethical nature. A little boy in his manual-training lesson has succeeded in making a calendar-stand. He is happy because he has accomplished something which now becomes his own. question with him may be: "To whom shall I give it ?" Who is nearer than his father? Observe this child when he reaches home. His happy countenance tells us what pleasure he finds in giving this product of his own activity to his father. Acts of this kind must be the raw material out of which the habit of service is developed. He is happy in doing the act. It may be very insignificant in itself, but it is of the right sort. He derives pleasure from right doing, and this pleasure, this interest, this desire, when leading to action, is our moral will. By using as models. articles of apparent use to the pupils, manual training may prove very effective in this respect.

3. Habits of muscular control.—- We should use models requiring for their construction a variety of muscular movements, with sufficient repetition of each, in order to make them a permanent content in the form of a habit.

4. Habits of order and neatness.— The manual-training teacher should insist that the pupils take the work seriously, use the tools and instruments with care and appreciation, and leave them at the end of the lesson in an orderly condition.

5. Habits of prolonged concentration, of attention, or perseverance.- The condition for the development of this habit is the proper progression of the exercises, so that they at every stage call into action the very best effort that the pupil is capable of. In the interest of the best results in this respect, the pupil's motive for this extended effort should be interest in the activity itself or its results.

6. Habits of accuracy or truth.- Never to ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well, together with insistence upon accurate work, are the conditions for the development of these habits. A pupil is accustomed thru the manifold exercises in cardboard construction and wood-work to reach a certain degree of accuracy in his efforts on the different models. What influence is this discipline likely to have upon the pupil? In the first place, he is taught that four inches is four inches, and not a sixteenth more or less. This consciousness that only what is right is right, and that something only approximately true is wrong, will influence his work in every line of activity.

Why should not this clear consciousness of what is right and wrong in the material world be carried over into the moral and ethical field? Is not a pupil who has been accustomed never to hand to his teacher a model as true that is not true, after several years of similar experiences, likely to insist upon truth in other relations also?

7. Habits of self-reliance or confidence.- Condition: Never ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well. Every individual effort which succeeds in a certain field will add to the consciousness of power in that field. By a certain arrangement of the exercises a boy is able to get high credit for his work. He gets the approbation of the teacher, and, furthermore - this is the stronger factor - he sees for himself that he has been able to do a certain task well. These experiences are repeated time after time. Every one of these successful efforts will add to his consciousness of power in the field in question; in other words, it will add strength to a habit under formation, the moral habit of confidence, based upon power.

Manual training is well adapted to further the development of this habit, because the success of the effort is apparent to the pupil himself. He will not have to be told by the teacher, as the case is in most other subjects. I look upon the development of this habit as one of the chief ends of manual training.

It is evident, however, that this habit of confidence is as many-sided as there are fields of activity. Manual training will arouse confidence in one's power in anything where similar difficulties are present. Success in arithmetic will develop confidence in one's power in solving arithmetical problems, etc., but we can claim for manual training, however, a wide range of application in this respect, on the ground that there are common elements in all fields of manual activity. And in so far as these common elements exist, the confidence gained thru a systematically arranged course of manual training can be carried over into other, related fields of activity.

This qualification applies to all the other habits mentioned above. We do not by any means claim general training as the result of manual training, except in so far as related elements exist in the different fields of activity.

The aim of an educational subject decides the methods to be employed. On the basis of the previous discussion we may now arrive at some general conclusions in regard to the teaching of manual training, the progression of the exercises, etc.

The progression of the exercises in a course of manual training should be such as to manifest to the pupil a constantly growing power, this being the condition for a growing interest. We should never ask a pupil to do what he cannot do well.

His work in manual training should be a line of continuous victories

over difficulties gradually increasing, but not surpassing his power at any stage. Continued failure is worse than no attempt. Success is a greater factor in the educational value of manual training than in any other subject. If we ask a pupil to make a box of cardboard of a certain size, he should be prepared for that model thru previous simpler exercises. The remark that a child cannot read perfectly the first time a book is put into his hand, or make a perfect sketch at his first trial, has no application to manual training. Our aim is not the development of technical skill, but the development of habits. The fact that a boy cannot read well the first time he opens a book is no excuse for accepting an imperfect model as the earlier results in manual training. If a boy does not succeed in cutting his card to accurate dimensions, in the fourth grade for instance, he has lost the vital educational results of the exercise. Continued failure in this respect will have injurious effects upon the child's development. The habits we have enumerated above will fail to develop, and in place of them he will acquire habits of carelessness, inaccuracy in its moral and actual significance; moreover, he will lose confidence in the use of his hands. Manual training under such conditions becomes a farce. The very fact that pupils are making certain articles out of wood or cardboard does not make their activity manual training. Above all other things I look upon thoroness as the vital end of our instruction in manual training. Accuracy, as we have noticed, is an element that enters as a condition for the development of the most important habits resulting from manual training. It is therefore of importance to illustrate what this term "accuracy" implies during the different school periods.

In the previous discussion the word "accuracy" has been applied to two different aspects of manual training, namely: (1) accuracy of expression; (2) accuracy of measurements.

If a primary class in studying the baker's trade is making, as a matter of illustration, a baking-pan of paper, we expect this model to give a comparatively exact illustration of the shape of this utensil, so that a clear and exact idea remains as the result of the constructive exercise. This kind of accuracy does not include measurements; it is simply accuracy in expression. On the other hand, if the pupils in a grammar class are making a box, the drawing of which calls for a certain length, we expect the pupils to make a model of the length called for by the drawing. This I have called accuracy of dimensions.

It is only accuracy of expression that we should strive for in the first three years in school. This, besides neatness in arranging and planning patterns and carefulness in cutting, should be the only requirements of the work in the first three grades in regard to accuracy.

In the fourth grade another element enters; that is, accuracy of dimensions. The idea of measurements should there be introduced. In this grade the pupils are perfectly able to use the rule with absolute accuracy,

and I believe it should be insisted upon. That is, if a model is to be 4% inches long, there is no reason why not 85 per cent. of the pupils should get it this dimension, and not inch more or less. We should never, however, ask for accuracy before the pupils are properly prepared for such exercises as imply this element; but at the age of nine it does not seem too extravagant to expect a pupil to locate a point a certain distance from another point, when the process simply means putting the pencil point opposite a certain figure. Neither are the cutting exercises beyond the pupil's power, if cardboard is used as the material of construction.

Just as we insisted upon the accuracy of expression during the first three years in school, we should thereafter insist upon accuracy of dimensions or measurements. Later in school life we introduce accuracy of a higher grade or nature which will call into action the æsthetic ideas of proportion and beauty. Accuracy in one sense or the other is the keynote to the disciplinary significance of manual training.

This discussion on accuracy will again emphasize the necessity of careful progression of the exercises. At no stage of the work should we ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well.

I look upon it as unfortunate that this principle is being often violated.

TABLE OF STATISTICS OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS

What has been said above in regard to accuracy of dimensions applies especially to the regular series of models that is followed by all the pupils

in the class. More freedom should be given to the pupils in their work on models of their own invention. Independent activity of this nature should be encouraged, and, if accuracy has been attained on the regular models, the pupils will be guided by the habits thus formed in this independent work.

In the chart of the statistics of manual training in the Detroit public schools you will notice that we have special teachers for the boys only in the seventh and eighth grades.

In the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades the work is in charge of the regular grade teachers, each class of boys receiving their instruction in manual training while the girls have their lesson in sewing from special teachers. The course, as you notice, is cardboard construction in the fourth and fifth grades, and knife-work in cardboard and in wood in the sixth grade. I instruct the grade teachers in the different exercises and illustrate the method of teaching the different models, besides emphasizing the aim of the lesson.

In my first talk to new teachers I spend quite a good deal of time defining the aim of manual training as definitely as possible, besides giving as many lessons as my time permits to the different classes in the presence of the teachers. With this assistance I believe the grade teachers can teach the boys manual training just as well as, or better than, special instructors. In the first place, they know their pupils; secondly, they can correlate the instruction in manual training with that of other, related subjects, thus helping to make this new subject an integral part of the curriculum; and, thirdly, they have had extensive experience in teaching. These three conditions are not so easily fulfilled by a special teacher, and they are vital conditions for the success in teaching manual training.

THE PROGRESS AND AIMS OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CHICAGO

HENRY S. TIBBITS, PRINCIPAL SPRY SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL.

The teaching of cooking and sewing, for local reasons called "household arts," was introduced into the Chicago public schools two and a half years ago. A special committee of five members of the board of education inspected at the Hammond School the teaching of these subjects which they had permitted at private expense. Twenty-five thousand dollars was appropriated for providing equipment and initiating the work for its first year. Of this but $18,500 was used. Equipments for cooking were placed in eleven schools, and have been placed in the new Dewey School. Each of these has been a center to which several neighboring schools have sent the girls of the seventh and eighth grades for cooking lessons, one period of an hour and a half each week. The number of