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gagement and loss on both sides. The conquered pirate soon after made his peace with the government, and the victor in time followed the same course. The story of those disturbed times to this day affords a frequent subject for the tales of old people in that region, and the same waters are still infested by the "foam to the sea," as the Chinese term these freebooters.

The reign of Kiaking ended in 1820, and by his will his second son was appointed to succeed him, and took the name of Taukwang. Thus far his administration has been attended with a continual succession of wars, insurrections, and troubles, in one quarter or another of his vast dominions, though none of them threatened the overthrow of the government, until the war with England commenced in 1840. A rebellion in Turkestan in 1828 was attended with great cruelty and treachery on the part of the Chinese, and its leader Jehangir was murdered in violation of the most solemn promises. An insurrection in Formosa, and a rising among the mountaineers of Kwangtung, in 1830-32, were put down more by money than by force, but as peace is both the end and evidence of good government in China, the authorities are not very particular how it is brought about. Still, so far as can be judged from the imperfect data of native historians of former days, compared with the observations of foreigners at present, there is little doubt that this enormous mass has been better governed by the Manchus, than under the princes of the Ming dynasty; there has been more vigor in the administration of government and less palace favoritism and intrigue in the appointment of officers, more security of life and property from the exactions of local authorities, bands of robbers, or processes of law;—in a word, the Manchu sway has well developed the industry and resources of the country, of which the popula tion, loyalty, and content of the people are the best evidences.

The sovereigns of the Ming and Tsing dynasties, being more frequently mentioned in history than those of former races, are here given, with the length of their reigns. The succession of the emperors of all the dynasties is given in Gutzlaff's History of China, and in Du Halde's China.

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Tamerlane, Richard II., Robert II.
Manuel-Paleologus, Henry IV. of Eng
James I., Henry V., Martín V.

Amurath II., Henry VI., Charles VII.

Albert II., Cosmo de Medicis.

James II., Fred. III. of Aus., Nich. V.
Mahomet II., Edward IV., Sixtus IV.
James III. Ferd. & Isabella, Louis XI.
Bajazet II.. James IV., Henry VII.
James V., Henry VIII., Charles V.
Solyman II., Mary, Philip II., Henry II.
Selim II., Elizabeth, Gregory III.
James I., Henry IV., Louis XIII.
Othman II., Philip IV., Gregory XV.
Amurath IV., Charles I., Urban VIII.
Innocent X., Frederick the Great.

Mahomet IV., Cromwell, Louis XIV.
Charles II., Clement IX., Sobie ky.
Mahomet V., George II., Louis XV.
Osman III., George III, Clement XIV.
Selim HI, Napoleon, Fred. Wm. II.
Mahmoud, George IV., Louis XVIII.

The whole number of sovereigns in the twenty-six dynasties, from Yu the Great to Taukwang is 235, or 243 commencing with Fuhhí, during a period of 4699 years, from B. c. 2852 to A. D. 1847; this gives to each dynasty a duration of 180 years, and to each monarch an average of 19 years. If the computation commence with Yu, the time comprised in the Chinese monarchies gives 162 years to each dynasty, and an average of 171 years to each reign. From B. c. 2715, when Menes founded the first Egyptian dynasty, to B. c. 331, a period of 2384 years, Manetho reckons thirty-one dynasties, and 378 kings, which is 77 years to each family, and only 6 years to each reign. In England, during the 771 years from William the Conqueror in 1066, to Victoria, in 1837, there have been 34 sovereigns, averaging 22 years to each reign; and about the same average holds in other European states.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Religion of the Chinese.

THE real religious belief and practices of a heathen people are hard to describe intelligibly. Men naturally exercise much freedom of thought in such matters, and feel the authority of their fellow-men over their minds irksome to bear; and though it is comparatively easy to describe religious ceremonies and festivals, the real belief of a people, especially a pagan people,—that which constitutes their religion, their trust in danger and guide in doubt, their prompter to present action and hope for future reward, is not quickly examined, nor easily described. The want of a well understood and acknowledged standard of doctrine, and the degree of latitude each one allows himself in his observance of rites, or belief of dogmas, the diverse views and imperfect knowledge of the writer, and misapprehension of the effect this tenet or that ceremony has upon the heart of the worshipper, both in writer and reader, also tend still further to embarrass the subject. This at least is the case with the Chinese, and notwithstanding what has been written upon their religion, no one has very satisfactorily elucidated the true nature of their belief, and the intent of their ritual. The reason is owing partly to the indefinite ideas of the people themselves upon the character of their ceremonies, and their consequent inability to give a clear notion of them; and partly to the variety of observances found in distant parts of the country, and the discordant opinions entertained by those belonging to the same sect, so that what is seen in one district is sometimes utterly unknown in the next province, and the opinions of one man are laughed at by another.

Before proceeding, two negative features of Chinese religion deserve to be noticed, which distinguish it from the faith of most other pagan nations. These are, the absence of human sacrifices, and the non-deification of vice. The prevalence of human offerings in almost all ages of the world, and among nations of differ

REDEEMING FEATURES OF CHINESE RELIGION.

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ent degrees of civilization, not only widely separated in respect of situation and power, but flourishing in ages remote from each other, and having little or no mutual influence, has often been noticed. Human sacrifices are offered to this day in some parts of Asia, Africa, and Polynesia, which the extension of Christian instruction and power has, it is to be hoped, greatly reduced and almost accomplished the extinction of; but no record of the sacrificial immolation of man by his fellow, " offering the fruit of his body for the sin of his soul," has been found in Chinese annals, in such a shape as to carry the conviction that it formed part of the religious belief, or ceremonial practice of the people, although the Scythian custom of burying the servants and horses of a deceased prince or chieftain with him, was perhaps observed before the days of Confucius, and may have been occasionally done since his time. Still this feature, negative though it be, stands in strong contrast with the appalling destruction of human life for religious reasons, still existing among the tribes of western and central Africa, and recorded as having been sanctioned among the Aztecs and Egyptians, the Hindus and Carthaginians, and other ancient nations, not excepting the Jews and Greeks.

The other, and still more remarkable trait of Chinese idolatry is, that there is no deification of sensuality, which, in the name of religion, could shield and countenance those licentious rites and orgies, that enervated the minds of worshippers, and polluted their hearts, in so many other pagan countries. No Venus or Lakshmi occurs in the list of Chinese goddesses; no weeping for Thammuz, no exposure in the temple of Mylitta, or obscene rites of the Durga-puja, have ever been required or sanctioned by Chinese priests; nor are nautch girls as in Indian temples, or courtesans as at Corinth, kept in their sacred buildings. Their speculations upon the dual powers of the yin and yang have never degenerated into the vile worship of the linga and yoni of the Hindus, or of Amun-kem, as pictured on the ruins of Thebes. Although they are a licentious people in word and deed, the Chinese have not endeavored to sanctify vice, and lead the votaries of pleasure, falsely so called, further down the road of ruin, by making its path lie through a temple, and under the protection of a goddess. Nor does their mythology teem with the disgusting relations of the amours of their deities, which render the religious stories of the Hindus and Greeks so revolting; on the

contrary, they exalt and deify chastity and seclusion as much as the Romanists do, as a means of bringing the soul and body nearer to the highest excellence. Vice is kept out of sight, as well as out of religion, in a great degree, and it may be safely said, that no such significant sign as has been uncovered at Pompeii, with the inscription Hic habitat felicitas, was ever exhibited in a Chinese city.

If the irresponsible authority of the Governor of the world be acknowledged in the establishment and removal of the kingdoms of the earth, and his declared detestation of these things be regarded as one reason for destroying those who practised them, then may not one reason be found for the long duration of the Chinese people and government, in their comparative freedom from these abominations? He expressly says to his chosen people (Lev. xviii. 24, 25), “Defile not yourselves in any of these things; for in all these the nations are defiled which I cast out before you and the land is defiled: therefore I do visit the iniquity thereof upon it, and the land itself vomiteth out her inhabitants." A principal cause of the subsequent calamities which befel the Jews, is repeatedly ascribed to the immolation of their sons and daughters in sacrifice to false gods, and their imitation of the bacchanalian orgies of the heathen around them. If the same causes produce the same effects among other people, the removal of the great nations of antiquity may be ascribed as much to their utter pollution and cruelty, as to their loss of martial vigor, the rancor of political dissensions, and the luxurious indolence which made them a prey to their more vigorous neighbors. When a land is defiled and spews out its inhabitants, the King of the whole earth easily finds a besom to execute his purposes. One pagan nation has come down from ancient times, and this alone is distinguished for its absence from religious slaughter of innocent blood, and the sanctified license of unblushing lust.

To these traits of Chinese character, preventive of their national chastisement and removal, may be added the preservative features of their regard for parents and superiors, and their general peaceful industry. If there be any connexion between the former of these virtues, and the promise attached to the fifth commandment, "That thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee," then the long duration of the Chi

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