Agriculture; tenure of land-Agricultural implements--Terraces- Mathematical and Astronomical knowledge-Sexagenary cycle, and 100 145 HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF CHINA. Cosmogony of the Chinese; Pwanku and his deeds-Mythological history-Dates compared with the Bible-Establishment of Chinese people-Five sovereigns, Fuhhí and his successors-Three dynasties of Hia, Shang, and Chau-Tsin, builder of the Eastern Wall-Modern history-Han, Tang, and Sung dynasties-Mongol conqueror, Kub- Negative features of their religion-Character and objects of worship in the state religion, position of the emperor in it-Official worship required of all magistrates-Sect of Tau or Rationalists-Its founder, Lau-tsz'-Magical rites and mythology of the priests-Budhism; its introduction into China; its tenets, priests, and ceremonies-Nun- neries-Shamanism-Infanticide-Ideas relating to spirits-Funeral ceremonies-Worship of ancestral manes; its nature and univer- sality-Festivals for the dead-Fortune-telling-Benevolent insti- Nestorians visit China-Tablet recording their labors-Prester John- Roman Catholic missionary, Corvino-Ricci enters China, and makes his way to Peking-His character-Paul Siu and his daughter Can- dida-Influence of Schaal at court-Reverses at the death of Shun- chí-Verbiest appointed to reform the Calendar-Disputes about ancestral worship-Present condition of the Romish missions-Plan of operations; baptisms, schools, and converts-Degree of influence upon Chinese society-Protestant missions to the Chinese-Mor- rison's labors and character-Missions in the Indian Archipelago; in Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, and Shanghai-Missionary hospitals- Distribution of books-Translation of Bible-Qualified toleration of Opium trade commences-Mode of cultivating the poppy-Preparation of opium-Prohibited by the Chinese-Mode of seething and smoking it-History of its trade-Coasting and internal trade of China— Export trade, and its principal articles-Import trade, and notice of the principal articles-Manner of conducting the trade-Tables FOREIGN INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. Earliest notices of China-The Seres, Sinæ, Sesatæ, &c.-Traffic through Central Asia-Embassy from Rome-Arabian travellers- Missions of Carpini, Ascelin, and Rubruquis, to the grand khan- Marco Polo-Ibn Batuta and Oderic-Portuguese reach China; their embassies, trade, &c.-Dutch occupy Formosa-Embassies to ORIGIN OF THE WAR WITH ENGLAND Lord Napier sent to Canton-Becomes involved with governor Lu- Nature of their disagreement-Trade stopped-His death-Grounds for refusing a correspondence of equality-British commission re- tires to Macao-Sir G. B. Robinson succeeds-Capt. Elliot becomes superintendent-Discussion respecting legalizing opium-Reasons against it-Discussion respecting the trade among foreigners-Riot Advanced force arrives-Tinghai taken-Interview at Taku-Treaty of the Bogue-Attack on Canton-Sir Henry Pottinger supersedes Captain Elliot-Amoy, Tinghai, Chinhai, Ningpo, Chapu, and Shanghai taken-Passage up the Yangtsz' kiang-Chinkiang fu taken and pillaged-Peace of Nanking-British forces retire-Riot at Canton-Supplementary treaty of the Bogue-Traffic and com- mercial regulations-Hon. C. Cushing negotiates the treaty of Wanghia between the United States and China-Riot and homicide at Canton-M. de Lagrené negotiates the treaty of Whampoa be- tween France and China-Causes of future collision and prospects THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. CHAPTER XIII. Architecture, Dress, and Diet of the Chinese. It is a sensible remark of De Guignes (Vol. ii., p. 173), that "the habit we fall into of conceiving things according to the words which express them, often leads us into error when reading the relations of travellers. Such writers have seen objects altogether new, but they are compelled, when describing them, to employ equivalent terms in their own language in order to be understood; while these same terms tend to deceive the reader, who imagines that he sees such palaces, colonnades, peristyles, &c., under these designations as he has been used to, when, in fact, they are quite another thing." The same observation is true of other things than architecture, and of other nations than the Chinese, and this confusion of terms and meanings proves a fruitful source of error in regard to an accurate knowledge of foreign nations, and a just perception of their condition. For instance, the terms a court of justice, a common school, politeness, learning, navy, houses, &c., as well as the names of things, like razor, shoe, cap, bed, pencil, paper, &c., are inapplicable to the same things in England and China; while it is plainly impossible to coin a new word in English to describe the Chinese article, and equally inexpedient to introduce the native term. If, for example, the utensil used by the Chinese to shave with should be picked up in Portsmouth by some one who had never seen or heard of it, he would be as likely to call it an oyster knife, or a wedge, as a razor; while the use to which it is applied must of course give it that name, and would, if it were still more unlike the western article. So with other things. The ideas a Chinese gives to the terms hwangti, kwanfu, pau, pih, and shu, are very different from those conveyed to an American by the words emperor, magistrate, cannon, pencil, and book. Since a person can only judge of what he hears or reads by what he knows, it is desirable that when he reads or hears western names applied to their equivalents in eastern countries, the function of a different civilization, habits, and notions, should form an element in the opinion he forms. These remarks are peculiarly applicable to the domestic life of the Chinese, to their houses, diet, dress, and customs in social intercourse; and although careful descriptions may go a good way in conveying just ideas, it cannot be hoped that they will do what a single look would instantly accomplish. The notions entertained abroad on these particulars are, it need hardly be remarked, rather more accurate than those the Chinese have of distant countries, and it is scarcely possible that they can lose their conceit in their own civilization and position among the nations so long as such ideas are entertained as the following extract exhibits. Tien Kíshih, a popular essayist, thus congratulates himself and his readers: "I felicitate myself that I was born in China, and constantly think how very different it would have been with me, if I had been born beyond the seas in some remote part of the earth, where the people, far removed from the converting maxims of the ancient kings, and ignorant of the domestic relations, are clothed with the leaves of plants, eat wood, dwell in the wilderness, and live in the holes of the earth; though born in the world, in such a condition I should not have been different from the beasts of the field. But now, happily, I have been born in the Middle Kingdom. I have a house to live in; have food and drink, and elegant furniture; have clothing and caps, and infinite blessings: truly, the highest felicity is mine." Whatever may be thought of the accuracy of these statements, it is plain that the author considered his own country preferable to the neighboring regions; and that while the Chinese possessed food and drink, clothing and caps, houses and furniture, the rest of the world, in his opinion, was destitute of them. The architecture of the Chinese is unique, presenting in its |