SALVATOR ROSA

Salvator Rosa. See ROSA.

Salve Regina, the first words of the antiphon, addressed to the Blessed Virgin Mary, said after Lauds and Compline, in the Roman Catholic Church, from Trinity to Advent. It dates from the 11th century, but first found a place in the Breviary of Cardinal Quignon (1536), and thence was adopted into that of Pope Pius V. (1568). Salviati, ANTONIO. See MURANO. Salvini, TOMMASO, tragedian, was born at Milan, 1st January 1830, his father and mother both being actors. The boy, who showed early aptitude, was trained under Modena, a distinguished player, and became well known as member of Ristori's company. In 1849 he fought with distinction in the revolutionary war; and returning to the stage played with eminent success as Edipus in a play written for Salvini by Nicolini, and as Saul in Alfieri's drama. In Paris he played in these, in Racine's plays, and as Shakespeare's Othello the part with which he is identified in the minds of English playgoers. He scored successes in Brussels and Madrid, and visited the United States in 1874, England in 1875, with as great éclat. But after another visit to the United States in 1881, and to Britain in 1884, he retired from the stage to enjoy a life of learned leisure in his villa near Florence. Amongst his most striking parts were- besides Othello-Hamlet, Macbeth, and Lear. See Leaves from the Autobiography of Tommaso Salvini (1893). His son Alexander adopted his father's career, and inherited much of his talent.

Salvinia, a genus of the order of plants formerly called Rhizocarpeæ or Pepperworts, now known as the Heterosporous Ferns. They are 'ferns' because, amongst other reasons, the development of the embryo is similar to that process in the common ferns, and 'Heterosporous' because the sporophyte bears two kinds of spores instead of one. To understand these plants it is necessary to know the structure of Ferns (q.v.). The order includes two families, the Salviniacea and the Marsiliacea. The former consists of two genera, Salvinia and Azolla, the latter also of two genera, Marsilia and Pilularia. The spore-bearing generation of Salvinia is a plant that floats on the surface of water. The stem bears on its upper

B

Fig. 1.

A, transverse section of the stem of Salvinia natans, showing aerial leaves and submerged leaf, with sporocarps. B, longitudinal section through three fertile teeth of a submerged leaf, one sporocarp with macrosporangia, two with microsporangia. (After Goebel.)

surface four rows of aerial leaves, and on its under surface two rows of submerged aquatic leaves, which have the outward form and functions of roots; there are no true roots at all. The stem of Marsilia creeps along the surface of marshy land, or on the bottom below the water. The upper surface of the stem bears two rows of leaves with long stalks, the under surface bears roots. Pilularia has peculiar narrow leaves. In Salvinia the sori or groups of sporangia are placed upon the aquatic leaves near the insertion, whence the old name Rhizocarpeæ. The coverings or indusia

form small berry-like objects. In Marsilia the sori are borne upon fertile leaves which branch from infertile leaves just above their insertion. The fertile leaves are folded in like pea-pods, and each of them The sori of Pilularia are encloses several sori. similar, but globular. The sori of Salvinia and of Azolla are of two kinds. Some contain numerous long-stalked microsporangia with male spores ; others contain fewer (in Azolla only one) shortIn Marsilia and Pilularia the macrosporangia and stalked female macrosporangia with female spores. within the same microsporangia occur The microspores develop into rudimentary filamentous male prothallia. The antherozoids are formed in two cells at the apex of the filament,

b

S

Fig. 2.

w

B

sori.

A, Marsilia salvatrix, anterior portion of stem with leaves; k, terminal bud; b, b, leaves; f, f, sporocarps springing from leaf-stalks at x. B, Pilularia globulifera; s, terminal bud of stem; b, b, leaves; w, roots; f, sporocarps. C, the extremity magnified; k, the lateral bud. (After Goebel.)

which represent the antheridium. The macrospores develop into female prothallia which never grow more than to project a little from the spores; they bear archegonia. The oosphere within an archegonium is fertilised by an antherozoid, and produces an embryo. The Heterosporous Ferns are interesting as showing a stage in that reduction of the prothallium as an independent plant which reaches its climax in the Seed Plants. See FERNS, OVULE, and PHANEROGAMIA.

Sal Volatile, a well-known remedy for faintness, consists essentially of a solution of carbonate of ammonia in alcohol. It contains in addition free ammonia and the volatile oils of lemon and nutmeg. As it is a strongly caustic liquid, it should never be taken unless well diluted with water. See SALTS (SMELLING), and AMMONIA.

Salween, a river of Asia that flows south through the Shan country, then between Siam and British Burma, and flows into the Gulf of Martaban a little below Maulmain. It is navigable for only about 80 miles up from its mouth; its bed is then interrupted by rapids and the dangerous ravines through which it passes. The Chinese call it the Lukiang; they also give the same name to the Tibetan Giama Nu-chu. It is, however, uncertain whether this last, which has a course of some 700 miles through Tibet, and whose course is known down to 27° 45' N. lat., is the upper part of the Salween or the upper part of the Irawadi (q.v.). The course of the Salween (also spelt Salwen, Salwin, and Salouain) is known only

as high as 25° N. lat. The question can only be settled when the gap of 25 degrees has been explored. See the discussion in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1887).

Salzbrunn, a group of three villages (New, Lower, and Upper Salzbrunn) in Prussian Silesia, 40 miles by rail SW. of Breslau; they have eight mineral springs, which attract nearly 4000 visitors in the season. The water is alkalo-saline; some

1,100,000 bottles are exported every year. There are glass and porcelain factories, yarn-spinning works, brick-works, and coal-mines. Pop. 6459.

Salzburg, a crown-land of Austria, bounded on the W. by Bavaria and Tyrol, on the S. by Carinthia, and on the E. by Styria. Area, 2762 sq. m.; pop. (1880) 163,570; (1890) 173,510. It lies on the northern face of the eastern Alps, and is a mountainous region, reaching altitudes of 12,000 feet in the Hohe Tauern. Snow-fields and glaciers cover 115 sq. m. in the more elevated regions. The river Salzach (190 miles), a tributary of the Inn, flows east and then north through one of the most picturesque of the Alpine valleys, and drains the greater part of the crown-land. The climate is variable but healthy. Two-fifths of the surface are covered with forests, and twofifths consist of Alpine meadows. The rearing of cattle and horses is an important branch of industry. Salt is obtained in large quantities, especially at Hallein (q.v.). Iron, copper, gypsum, and marble are mined. The hot springs of Gastein (q.v.) are widely celebrated.

SALZBURG, the capital, occupies a charming situation on the Salzach, by rail 195 miles W. by S. of Vienna and 80 miles E. by S. of Munich. At this point the river passes between two extensive but isolated masses of rock (1716 and 2133 feet), one of which, the Mönchsberg (Monk's Hill), is crowned by the old citadel, dating originally from Roman times, but frequently rebuilt. These hills and those that close in the valley are picturesquely wooded. The river divides the city into two parts; on the west is the old city, with many dark, winding streets, getting access to the valley and plain on the north through a gallery (440 feet long, 39 feet high, and 23 feet wide), hewn (1767) in the solid rock of the Mönchsberg. This portion of the city contains the fine cathedral, with a white marble façade, and built (1614-34) in imitation of St Peter's at Rome; the Romanesque abbey church of St Peter (1127), in the graveyard of which are old monastic cells and a couple of chapels hewn out of the Mönchsberg, besides the chapel of St Margaret (1485); the palace of the Grand-duke of Tuscany, in the Italian style (1592-1725); and the former grand stables (now barracks) of the archbishops, partly constructed of marble (1607); the Benedictine monastery, with a valuable library of some 65,000 vols. and 900 MSS.; and the archbishop's palace. On the opposite bank-both banks are laid out as tree-shaded drives and promenades lies the modern town, with Italian-looking, flatroofed houses; here the most prominent buildings are Castle Mirabell (1607), the former summerresidence of the archbishops; the Capuchin monastery (1599), and St Sebastian's Church (1505–12), with the monument of Paracelsus. The city possesses also a theological faculty, all that remains of the former university (1623-1810); a public library (1617) of 82,000 vols, and 1400 MSS.; a museum of Celtic and Roman antiquities, &c.; a bronze monument (1842) to Mozart, a native of the place; a new park on the east bank; the government buildings (1588); the town-house (1407), &c. Industry is not much developed, being confined chiefly to the manufacture of musical instruments, marble ornaments, &c. Pop. (1890) 27,244. The

SAMARANG

city stands on the site of the Roman settlement Juvavum, which was ruined by the Goths and Huns. The nucleus of a new city was made by St Rupert of Worms, who established a monastery Boniface made it a here in the 6th century. bishop's seat in the 8th century, and in 798 it was elevated to an archbishopric. The archbishops had a seat and vote in the German diet, and were perpetual legates of the pope, primates of Germany, and princes of the empire. They were generally noted for their ecclesiastical severity; in 1498 the Jews were expelled from the archbishopric; in 1525 the peasantry rose in revolt; in 1732, after five years' bitter persecution (in spite of all friendly efforts on the part of the Protestant princes of Germany), 30,000 Protestants left their homes (as illustrated in Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea) and settled, on the invitation of Frederick-William I., in Prussia, mainly in Lithuanian districts that had been desolated by plague. The archbishopric was secularised in 1803, and given to the Grand-duke of Tuscany, he being made an electoral prince. The archbishopric was re-erected in 1824. Except for a short interval (1810-14), it has belonged to Austria since 1805. Since 1849 it has formed a separate crown land of the Austrian empire.

See Zauner and Gärtner, Chronik von Salzburg (11 vols. 1797-1827), and Zillner, Geschichte der Stadt Salzburg (1885).

Salzkammergut, called the Austrian Swit zerland, one of the most picturesque districts of Europe, lies wedged between the Austrian crownland of Salzburg on the west and Styria on the east. Area, about 230 sq. m.; pop. 17,500. The scenery combines in rare beauty the features of valley, mountain, and lake. The highest peak, the Dachstein, reaches an altitude of 9830 feet. But the district derives its principal attraction from its lakes, the most famous of which are Hallstatt, Traun or Gmunden, Atter, St Wolfgang, Aber, Mond, and Zell. It derives its name of 'Saltexchequer Property' from its salt springs and mines, which yield some 33,000 tons of salt annually. The chief seats of the salt-works are Ischl (q.v.), Hallstatt, and Ebensee. Little or no agriculture is carried on; the inhabitants not engaged in the salt-industry are employed in cattle-breeding and in the timber trade.

Salzwedel, an old town of Prussian Saxony, 72 miles by rail NW. of Magdeburg, with manufactures of sugar, linen and woollen fabrics, needles, chemicals, &c. Pop. 8883.

the left bank of the Volga, at the influx of the Samara, a town of European Russia, stands on Samara, and on the railway from Moscow (656 miles to WNW.) to Orenburg (261 miles to SE.). One of the principal river ports on the Volga, it carries on a large trade in corn, salt, tallow, timber, boiling-works, and tile-works. It is the seat of a &c.; it has also tanneries, tobacco-factories, soapbishop.

Several hundred consumptive patients resort every year to the Koumiss (q.v.) establish(1886) 75,478.-The government has an area of ments here. Pop. (1869) 34,500; (1880) 51,947; 58,302 sq. m. and a pop. of 2,412,887, including 100,000 Germans living in agricultural colonies.

Samara, a dry indehiscent, usually one-sided fruit, with a wing-as in Ash (q.v.), Elm (q.v.), and Maple (q.v.)-the last a double samara.

Samarang, a seaport on the north of Java, 255 miles E. of Batavia, is the principal port for the trade of Middle Java. Since 1873 it has been connected with Jokjokarta and Surabaya by railway. The European quarters have all the appearance of a typical Dutch town. The more important buildings are a military hospital (550 beds), the town-house (1854-64), and Christian churches and

SAMARCAND

schools. A fort and a coast-battery provide defence for the town. The river is silted up at its mouth; but a canal, constructed in 1879, serves as a harbour. The roadstead is exposed during the west monsoon. Pop. 69,894.-The residency has an area of 1998 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,376,806, and produces rice, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and timber.

Samarcand, a city of western Turkestan, stands in the valley of the Zerafshan, about 4 miles S. of that river, and amongst the western spurs of the Tian-Shan Mountains, 130 miles E. by S. of Bokhara and 150 miles N. by E. of Balkh in Afghanistan. It is the ancient Marcanda, the capital of Sogdiana, which was taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great. It was again captured in 712 A.D. by the Arabs, who supplanted the GræcoBactrian civilisation, of which it was the centre, by the creed and customs of Islam. Ever since that time it has been a sacred city in the eyes of the Moslems, especially after the conqueror Timur made it the capital of his kingdom in the 14th century. It had, however, suffered terribly from Genghis Khan, who took it (1219) and destroyed

In

three-fourths of its half a million inhabitants. Timur's time it had a population of 150,000. Its best and handsomest buildings, as the Ulug-beg madrasa or College, the tomb of Timur, the tombs of his wives, the gigantic stone he used as a throne from which to dispense justice, and his audience-hall, date from the reign of the great conqueror or his immediate successors. The Ulug-beg, the graves of Timur and his wives, as well as the tomb of one of the Prophet's companions, and two other colleges, the Tilla-Kari and Shir-dar, both dating from the beginning of the 17th century, are magnificent structures, grandly decorated with arabesques, enamelled tiles of different colours, marble pavements, inscriptions in gold, and similar rich ornamentation. In the 15th century Samarcand was renowned as a school of astronomy and mathematics. After the decay of Timur's empire the city had a chequered history, figuring in most of the wars that raged in that region, until at last it fell into the hands of the emirs of Bokhara, from whom it was taken by the Russians in 1868. They have established themselves in the citadel, built on a steep hill 4 miles in circuit, and have laid out a new town, with broad and handsome streets, to the west of it. On the other side of the citadel is the old city, walled, with dark and narrow streets, and dirty houses. The ruins of still more ancient Samarcands extend for 3 miles or more to the west and north of both the Russian and the native town. Since 1888 Samarcand has been connected by rail with Merv and the Caspian Sea. The present population of the city (1886) amounts to 33,117, mostly Tajiks and Uzbegs (Sarts), with a garrison of some 6000 Russians. The people carry on gardening, their gardens being irrigated by water drawn off from the Zerafshan, and the manufacture of textiles, harness, gold and silver wares, leather, pottery, boots, &c., and conduct a brisk trade in cotton, silk, fruits, wheat, rice, salt, and horses.

Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, after Israel (the ten tribes) and Judah became two independent states. It was founded by Omri, on a commanding site, about 5 miles NW. of Shechem, and near the middle of Palestine. It stood on the long flat summit of an isolated hill (1450 feet), that was reached by a succession of terraces, and itself commanded a magnificent view on all sides. Consequently it was easy to make it a place of considerable strength; the Syrians indeed laid siege to it unsuccessfully more than once during the following reigns. But about 721 B.C. it fell before the three years' persistency of

the Assyrian monarchs, Shalmaneser and Sargon. These potentates carried away nearly all the Hebrew inhabitants of Samaria and the country of the Israelites, to which it had by then given its own name, captive into Babylonia. In their place they sent Assyrian colonists, from Babylon, Hamath, Sepharvaim, and Cuthah; hence the Jews call the Samaritans Cuthæans.' The new

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settlers, whilst retaining a good deal of their heathen forms of worship, adopted many of the characteristic religious practices and beliefs of the remnant of the Israelites amongst whom they dwelt. When the Jews returned from the Captivity and set about the rebuilding of the temple under the leadership of Ezra, the Samaritans came desiring to participate in the work. But the Jews rejected their assistance, and would not permit them to have any part or share in the revival of the worship of Jehovah, on the ground that they were unorthodox and condoners of idolatry. This of course caused an estrangement between the two sections of the nation, and the Samaritans

tried to prevent the Jews from fortifying their new city. The breach seems to have grown suddenly wider after the expulsion in 432 B.C. from Jerusalem of a member of the high priest's family and a son-in-law of Sanballat, the civil governor of the Jews. Not many years later the Samaritans, augmented from time to time by numbers of renegade Jews, built (409 B.C.) on Mount Gerizim beyond Shechem a sanctuary to Jehovah intended as a rival to the temple at Jerusalem. This converted them into bitter enemies, so that henceforward, at all events for very many years, the 'Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans,' and the during the growth of this enmity between the two Samaritans none with the Jews. At some time peoples, the Samaritans introduced the revised Pentateuch of Ezra as their religious code-book, and became extremely strict and puritanical in the observance of its laws. Of the prophets and other historical books of the Old Testament they had no knowledge. Thus they began a separate religious development from that of the Jews. In contrast to the Jews, they had no belief in the resurrection or in a Messiah, and gave no tithes to their priests; but in common with the Jews, especially the Talmudic sects, they practised cir cumcision, observed the Sabbath, kept up synagogues, and entertained beliefs as to the existence of demons and other superstitions. Yet they never made much real headway; and at the present day there do not survive more than 150 of them, collected at Nablus, the ancient Shechem. The rather Hebrew-Aramaic, dialect; and in it are Samaritan language is an archaic Hebrew, or written a very ancient version of the Pentateuch (see below), certain chronicles, hymns, and books of religious devotion (see Schürer's Jewish People).

Samaria was taken by Alexander the Great, and colonised by Macedonians and Hellenised. They fortified it, and it grew and prospered. Twice it was besieged and taken by the successors of Alexander-viz. by Ptolemy I. (312), and by Demetrius Poliorcetes (circa 296). The Jewish captain John Hyrcanus laid siege to it (circa 110 B.C.), and at the end of a year destroyed it utterly. Nevertheless the Samaritans joined the Jews in offering fierce resistance to the Romans: they entrenched themselves on Mount Gerizim, and only submitted after a desperate and bloody siege. Their city was again destroyed; but the consul Gabinius ordered it to be rebuilt. Augustus gave it to Herod the Great, who refounded it under the name of Sebaste. The Samaritans seem to have been involved in the dispersal' of the Jews, as they were well known at Byzantium, at Rome, in Egypt, and elsewhere. Yet some of them remained in the old city, and in