RUGBY

Rugby, a town giving name to the south-east division of Warwickshire, of which it stands at the northern corner, is situated at the junction of several railways in the middle of country such as George Eliot describes in Felix Holt. By rail it is 83 miles NW. of London and 30 ESE. of Birmingham. At the foot of the hill on which it stands the Swift gave John Wyclif's ashes to the Avon; close by at Ashby and at Dunchurch the Gunpowder Plot was hatched; the battlefield of Naseby was visited by Carlyle from its schoolhouse in 1842 a few days before Arnold's death; it is within a drive of Stratford-on-Avon, Coventry, Kenilworth. It is at once the centre of a great hunting district and the seat of a public school. This prob ably accounts for the large number of residential houses there. John Moultrie (q. v.) was long rector of the parish. Pop. (1851) 6317; (1891) 11,262.

The school was founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a grocer and a staunch supporter of Queen Elizabeth, by a gift of property in Manchester

Square, London. After maintaining its position

for some time as a good school for the Warwickshire gentry and a few others, specially under Dr James and Dr Wool, it became of national reputation under Dr Arnold, who in raising his school raised at the same time the dignity of his whole profession. Since his time the school has never lacked able teachers, remarkable for independence of mind. When Arnold died in 1842, Archbishop Tait succeeded him, having as coadjutors Lord Lingen, Dean Bradley, Principal Shairp, Thomas Evans, Theodore Walrond, Bishop Cotton. He in turn was succeeded by Dean Goulburn, who had as one of his assistants the future Archbishop Benson. The Crimean war reduced the numbers of the school to three hundred, and Dr Goulburn resigned in 1857. He was succeeded by the future Bishop of London, Dr Temple, who remained twelve years.

The Public Schools Commission reported of Rugby in his days that the general teaching of classics was absolutely unsurpassed; that Rugby School was the only public school in which physical science was a regular part of the curriculum; that only Harrow had done as much as Rugby in awakening interest in history. Having secured this tribute for his teaching and having collected enough money to rebuild the chapel, to erect a gymnasium, and to build new schools, Dr Temple was succeeded by Dr Hayman. To him succeeded Dr Jex-Blake, who inaugurated a still greater building era. When he resigned in 1887 he left behind him a school simply unrivalled in its appointments. He was succeeded by Dr Percival. Of illustrious Rugbeians may be named the poets Landor, Clough, and Matthew Arnold; Dean Stanley, who had the rare privilege of recording the work of his great head-master in biography; Judge Hughes, who did the same equally felicitously in Tom Brown's School-days; Dean Vaughan, Lord Derby, Lord Cross, Mr Goschen, Sir R. Temple, Franck Bright and York Powell the historians, Justice Bowen, Sir W. Palliser, Professor Sidgwick, Robinson Ellis and Arthur Sidgwick, C. Stuart-Wortley, and Arthur Acland. From Rugby went the first head-master to Marlborough, Wellington, Clifton, Haileybury, Fettes College, and Newcastle High School. Mission work found its Rugby worker in Fox, in whose memory the school still keeps up a missionary at Masulipatam. The learned author of Gothic Architecture, Matthew H. Bloxam, was taught and lived at Rugby, where he died in 1888, leaving his valuable collection of antiquities and books to the school. The school possesses an observatory, given by Archdeacon Wilson, and the Natural History Reports, written by members of the school, have often been of exceptional value.

See, besides Stanley's Life of Arnold and Tom Brown's School-days, The Book of Rugby School, edited by Dean Goulburn (1856); M. H. Bloxam and Rev. W. H. Payne Smith, Rugby: Its School and Neighbourhood (1889); Rugby School Registers Annotated, 1567-1887 (3 vols. 1881-91); Alfred Rimmer, Summer Rambles round Rugby (1892).

Rugby, TENNESSEE. See HUGHES, THOMAS.

Ruge, ARNOLD, German writer, was born at Bergen on the island of Rügen, on 13th September 1802, studied philosophy at Jena and Halle, and took such a warm interest in the Burschenschaft (q.v.) agitations of 1821-24 as to bring down upon himself a sentence of six years' imprisonment in a fortress. After his release he taught at Halle, from 1832 as a privat-docent at the university. Along with Echtermeyer he founded in 1837 the critical journal Hallesche Jahrbücher (later Deutsche Jahrbücher), which as the organ of Young Germany and the Young Hegelian School filled an influential place in the world of letters. Its liberal political tendencies drew upon it the condemnation of the Prussian censor, and after an attempt to transplant it to Dresden, thwarted by the censorship, Ruge withdrew to Paris. After spending some years there and in Switzerland, he started a bookseller's business in Leipzig, until the stormy revolutionary movement of 1848 drew him into its vortex. He published the democratic journal Die Reform, took his seat in the Frankfort parliament for Breslau, attended the Democratic Congress in Berlin, and took part in the disturbances at Leipzig in May 1849. In the following year he found it expedient to repair to England. In London he organised along with Mazzini and Ledru-Rollin the Central European Democratic Committee, but in 1850 withdrew to Brighton, where he lived by teaching and writing. For the services he rendered the Prussian government, by supporting it against Austria in 1866 and against France in 1870, he was rewarded with a yearly pension of £150. He died at Brighton on 31st December 1880. A thorough doctrinaire, Ruge advocated a universal democratic state, of which the several nations should be provinces, and put cosmopolitan dreams above national ideals. Unstable by nature, he readily changed his political opinions; and he was intemperate in language, and brimful of the shallow humours and prejudices of a little nature. Ruge wrote numerous books, plays, novels, &c., including the outlines of a Geschichte unserer Zeit (1881), Manifest an die Deutsche Nation (1866), his autobiography in Aus früherer Zeit (4 vols. 1863-67), and translations into German of Buckle's History of Civilisation, the Letters of Junius, Bulwer's Lord Palmerston, &c. See Ruge's Briefwechsel, &c., ed. by Nerrlich (2 vols. 1885-86).

Rugeley, a market-town of Staffordshire, on the Trent, 10 miles ESE. of Stafford. It has good public buildings (1879), a grammar-school, ironworks, and neighbouring collieries. Pop. (1851) 3054; (1881) 4249; (1891) 4181.

Rügen, an island of Prussia, lies in the Baltic, off the coast of Hither Pomerania. Greatest length, 33 miles; greatest breadth, 25 miles; area, 374 sq. m. Pop. (1890) 46,185. It is separated from the mainland by a strait about a mile in width. The island, which is deeply indented by the sea, terminates at the north-eastern extremity in the precipitous cliff called the Stubbenkammer (400 feet). Erratic boulders are common all over the island. Numerous barrows exist. Hertha Lake is believed to be the place where, according to Tacitus, the ancient Germanic goddess Hertha (Earth) was worshipped. The soil is productive, and yields good wheat; cattle are reared; and fishing is carried on. The scenery, everywhere pleasing, is frequently romantic, and, together with the facilities for

sea-bathing, attracts numerous visitors. Chief town, Bergen (pop. 3761), in the middle of the island. Rügen was occupied originally by Germanic tribes, then by Slavs, was conquered by the Danes in 1168, threw off their supremacy in 1209, and formed an independent principality until 1478, when it was incorporated with Pomerania (q.v.). Ruhmkorff, HEINRICH DANIEL, electrician, born at Hanover in 1803, in 1839 settled in Paris, and died there 21st December 1877. His Induction Coil, exhibited in 1855, is described and figured in Vol. VI. p. 129.

Ruhnken, DAVID, classical philologist, was born 2d January 1723 at Stolpe, in Pomerania, received his education at Königsberg, at Wittenberg University, and at Leyden under Hemsterhuis, who taught him Greek. Ruhnken's first works were to prepare a new edition of Plato, to collect the scholia on that author, and publish an edition of Timæus' Lexicon Vocum Platonicarum (Leyden, 1754; a much improved edition, 1789). In 1755 he went to Paris, and spent a whole year there examining the MSS. of the Royal Library and of the Library of St Germain. Hemsterhuis then got him appointed assistant to himself (1757) at Leyden. În 1761 he succeeded Oudendorp in the chair of Eloquence and History. In 1774 he succeeded Gronovius as librarian to the university, which he enriched with a multitude of valuable books and MSS. He died 14th May 1798. One of the best scholars and critics of the 18th century, Ruhnken possessed fine taste and sagacity, vast learning, and a remarkably lucid and graceful Latin style. His principal literary works embraced Epistola Criticœ (1749-51), an edition of Rutilius Lupus (1768), of Velleius Paterculus (1779), of Muretus (1789), &c. His pupil Wyttenbach wrote his Life (Leyden, 1799).

Ruhr, a right-hand affluent of the Rhine, rises in Westphalia, near the south-west frontier of Waldeck, flows generally west, and, after a course of 144 miles, joins the Rhine at Ruhrort.

Ruhrort, a town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the influx of the Ruhr into the Rhine, 26 miles by rail N. of Düsseldorf, is one of the busiest riverports on the Rhine, carrying on a large trade in corn, timber, iron, &c. In the vicinity there are large ironworks and coal-mines. Pop. (1890) 11,099. Ruisdael. See RUYSDAEL. Rule, ST. See REGULUS. Rule Nisi. See DIVORCE.

Rule of Faith, not the sum of the Christian faith as laid down in Creeds (q.v.) and Confessions (q.v.); but, in polemical theology, the sources whence the doctrines of the faith are to be authoritatively derived-the Scriptures, the tradition of the Church, the teaching of the fathers, &c. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, REFORMATION, CHILLINGWORTH, NEWMAN, &c.

Rule of the Road. This phrase includes the regulations to be observed in the movements of conveyances either on land or at sea. On Land: In England drivers, riders, and cyclists keep the side of the road next their left hand when meeting, and that next their right when overtaking and passing other horses or conveyances. The person neglecting this rule is liable for any damage that may happen through such neglect. A man riding against a horse, or a conveyance driving against another that is standing still, is answerable for any damage that may ensue. On the Continent and in America drivers and riders keep to the right. At Sea: If two steamers are meeting end on or nearly end on, both alter their courses to starboard-i.e. both turn to their right hand. If two steamers are crossing each other, the one which

RUM

has the other on the starboard (right hand) side keeps out of the way. A steamer must keep out of the way of a sailing ship. A steamer shall slacken speed or stop and reverse if necessary. If two sailing ships are approaching each other, whether meeting or crossing, one running free keeps out of the way of one close-hauled; one closehauled on the port tack keeps out of the way of one close-hauled on the starboard tack; one with the wind free on the port side keeps out of the way of one with the wind free on the starboard side; where both have the wind free on the same side the one to windward keeps out of the way of the keeps out of the way of the other ship. one to leeward; and a ship with the wind aft Notwithstanding the above rules, a ship, whether a sailing ship or steamship, overtaking any other must keep out of the way of the overtaken ship. Where one ship is to keep out of the way, the other must keep

her course.

Regard, however, is to be paid to all dangers of navigation, and to any special circumstances which may render a departure from the rules necessary to avoid immediate danger. See Marsden on Collisions.

Rullion Green. See PENTLAND HILLS.

Rum, a mountainous island of Argyllshire, belonging to the group of the Inner Hebrides, 15 miles N. by W. of Ardnamurchan Point. It is 8 miles long, 8 miles broad, and 42 sq. m. in area, only 300 acres being arable, and the rest deer-forest and moorland. The surface presents a mass of high sharp-peaked mountains, rising in Halival and Haiskeval to the height of 2368 and 2659 feet. In 1826 the crofters, numbering fully 400, were, all but one family, cleared off to America, and Rum was converted into a single sheep-farm; but in 1845 it was sold (as again in 1888) for a deer-forest. Pop. (1851) 162; (1881) 89; (1891) 53.

Rum, a kind of spirit made by fermenting and distilling the 'sweets' that accrue in making sugar from cane-juice. The scummings from the sugarpans give the best rum that any particular plantation can produce; scummings and molasses the next quality; and molasses the lowest. Before fermentation water is added, till the 'sett' or wort is of the strength of about 12 per cent. of sugar; and every ten gallons yields one gallon of rum, or rather more. The flavour of rum depends mainly on soil and climate, and is not good where canes grow rankly. Pine-apples and guavas are at times thrown into the still, but on the great scale no attempt is made to influence flavour artificially. The finest-flavoured rums are produced by the oldfashioned small stills. The modern stills, which produce a strong spirit at one operation, are unfavourable to flavour. The colour of rum is imparted after distillation by adding a certain proportion (varying with the varying taste of the market) of caramel, or sugar melted without water, and thus slightly charred. Rum is usually distilled at about 40 per cent. overproof; and it is calculated that from nine to ten acres of land will produce two hogsheads of sugar as well as about a puncheon of Rum is greatly improved by age, and old rum is very often highly prized; at a sale in Carlisle in 1865 rum known to be 140 years old sold for three guineas per bottle. It forms a very important part of colonial produce: the quantity imported into Britain in 1848 was 6,858,981 gallons; in 1875, 8,815,681 gallons; in 1881, 4,816,887 gallons (value £485,685); in 1889, 4,087,109 gallons (value £340,026). In the production of rum Jamaica claims the first place and Demerara the second. It is produced also in some of the French possessions.

rum.

RUM SHRUB, a liqueur in which the alcoholic base is rum, and the other materials are sugar,

RUMANIA

lime or lemon juice, and the rind of these fruits added to give flavour. Almost every maker has his own receipt, and much credit is assumed by each for his own especial mixture.

Rumania. See ROUMANIA.

Rumford, COUNT. Benjamin Thompson, a man of many talents, was born of an old colonial stock at Woburn, in Massachusetts, on 26th March 1753. His youth was spent as an assistant in a goods store at Salem and at Boston, and as a school teacher. But having married a lady of standing, he was made major in a New Hampshire regiment, and, through his royalist opinions, incurred the hostility of the colonists to such an extent that he found it best to cross the ocean to England (1775). In London he gave valuable information to the government as to the state of the colony, and was rewarded with an appointment in the Colonial Office. From his boyhood he had had a passion for physical investigations; in England he experimented largely with gunpowder, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (1779). In 1782 he was back in America, with a lieutenant-colonel's commission in the king's army. After peace was concluded he was knighted, and entered the service of the Elector of Bavaria. In this new sphere he showed great reforming energy: he thoroughly reformed the army, drained the marshes round Mannheim, established in Munich a cannon-foundry and a military academy, cleared the country of the swarms of beggars and planned a poor-law system, spread widely the cultivation of the potato, disseminated a knowledge of cheap and good dishes (especially the Rumford soup) and foods, devised an economical fireplace, kitchen, and oven (the Rumford roaster), improved the breeds of horses and cattle in Bavaria, and laid out the English Garden in Munich. For these services he was rewarded by election to membership of the Academies of Science in Munich, Mannheim, and Berlin, by being put at the head of the War Department of Bavaria, and by being made a count of the Holy Roman Empire-he chose the title of Rumford, the former name of the town of Concord in Massachusetts. During the course of a visit to England in 1796 he endowed the two Rumford medals of the Royal Society of London, and he also endowed two similar medals of the American Academy of Science and Art, all four for researches in light and heat. Three years later was founded on his initiative the Royal Institution (q. v.) for diffusing the knowledge of mechanical inventions. Going back to Munich in the same year, he found it threatened by the opposing French and Austrian armies. The Elector fled, leaving Count Rumford president of the Council of Regency, generalissimo of the forces, and head of the police. In 1799 he retired from the service of the Elector. His remaining years were principally occupied with physical investigations, especially in heat, which he clearly recognised to be some form of motion, besides showing that a definite quantity of heat could be produced by a definite amount of mechanical work. In 1804 he married the widow of Lavoisier, the celebrated chemist, and soon after settled at Auteuil, near Paris, where he died on 21st August 1814. See the Memoir prefixed to his Scientific Writings (5 vols. London, 1876), and the biography by Bauernfeind (Munich, 1889).

Runcorn, a thriving market and manufacturing town and river-port of Cheshire, on the left bank of the tidal Mersey, 12 miles ESE. of Liverpool and 28 WSW. of Manchester. The river is crossed here by a railway viaduct, which, erected in 1864-69 at a cost of over £300,000, is 1500 feet An long and 95 feet above high-water mark. ancient place, where a castle was founded by the Princess Ethelfreda in 916, and a priory in 1133, it yet dates all its prosperity from the construction of the Bridgewater Canal (1762-72), which at Runcorn descends to the Mersey by a succession of locks. More canal-boats plied to and from Runcorn than from anywhere else in the kingdom even before the opening of the Manchester Shipcanal (1887-94; see MANCHESTER, and CANAL, Vol. II. p. 700); and there are besides spacious docks with considerable shipping, Runcorn having been made a head-port in 1847. The industries include shipbuilding, iron-founding, rope-making, the manufacture of chemicals, quarrying, &c. Pop. (1851) 8049; (1871) 12,443; (1891) 20,050.

Runeberg, JOHAN LUDVIG, the greatest poet who has written in Swedish, and the national poet of Finland, was born in that country, at Jacobstad on the Gulf of Bothnia, on 5th February 1804. His father, a retired sea-captain, gave him a good education; though from the time he entered (1822) the university of Åbo he supported himself. In 1830, after three years of private coaching,' Runeberg was given a secretaryship in the university (removed to Helsingfors in 1827) and was named reader in Eloquence (Latin literature), and in the following year added to these offices that of teacher in the lyceum. In these years he published his first books-in 1830 a volume of Lyric Poems and in 1831 a narrative poem, The Grave in Perrho, for which the Swedish Academy gave him its minor gold medal. Other books followed in quick succession, as a beautiful epic idyll, The Elk-hunters (1832), one of his finest pieces of work; a second volume of Poems (1833), contain

ing amongst other things a second epic idyll, Christmas Eve; and a third epic idyll, Hanna, which is almost equal to The Elk-hunters in beauty and finish of style. All three are written in hexameters, which Runeberg manages with admirable effect; like other poems of the same class, they deal with the rural life of the interior of Finland, Hanna with the joys and sorrows of the quiet parsonage, The Elk-hunters with the peasantry and country-folk, and Christmas Eve with the manor-house and its dependents. Runeberg describes the fresh, unconventional manners and the old-world, patriarchal style of living of these people excellent taste, with tender sympathy, with grace with great wealth of picturesque detail, with and simplicity and beauty of form. The atmosphere that envelops his poetry was the immediate creation of his own wholesome, healthy, manly temperament and genius; one sterling ingredient is a quaint natural humour, deep-seated and pure in quality. Runeberg's poetry is moreover the written embodiment of the deepest feelings and sentiments of the dual people of Finland, of the Finns no less than of the descendants of the Swedish immigrants, and with his name all Finlanders associate their passionate devotion to their country.

From 1832 Runeberg added to his already numerous duties those of editor of the bi-weekly Helsingfors Morning News. But, with all these irons in the fire, he had too much work and too little pay, and there was little prospect of a good permanent position in the university; so in 1837 he applied

RUNJEET-SINGH

the 5th century B.C. have been found in the region of the Baltic. The oldest runic inscriptions being retrograde, the Goths must have obtained the art of writing from the Greeks at a time when Greek was still written in the retrograde direction from right to left, which gives us a date earlier than the 5th century, but after the new letters omega and chi had been evolved, and while H retained the value both of h, which it has in the Latin alphabet, and of e, which it has in the Greek, and also before koppa, which became Q in Latin, fell into disuse among the Greeks. From these and similar data it appears that the runic writing must

have been obtained from the Greeks after the 7th and earlier than the 5th century B. C. That the runic alphabet was developed from the Greek is proved among other things by the facts that it contains a symbol for ō which was developed from omega, a letter peculiar to the Greeks, and that it contains a symbol for ng, which proves to be a ligature of two gammas, Greek being the only language in which gg has the phonetic value of ng. The value of the runes must have changed to some extent after the symbols were obtained from the Greeks, owing to the sound changes tabulated in Grimm's Law (q.v.) not having been completed at the time when the runic writing was obtained. Thus, according to Grimm's Law, a Greek th answers to a Gothic d, and a Greek ch to a Gothic g, and we find, as we should expect, that the d rune was derived from theta, and the g rune from chi. The forms of the runes were considerably modified by the fact that they were cut with a knife on wooden slabs; consequently horizontal strokes, which would follow the grain of the wood, are necessarily avoided, and all the strokes are either vertical or slanting. There are several interesting runic inscriptions in England, among which may be mentioned that on the Ruthwell (q.v.) cross on the Bewcastle (q.v.) cross in Dumfriesshire, and that

+44 0th MITEN OF PFIRMASM son of Oswin, king of North

in Cumberland, a fac-simile of which is given here. It is a memorial of Alefrid,

umbria, and dates from the XFRFFBETH FH 7th century. Several crosses DRE TERBERF with the old Irish interlaced ornament, and are in the form AMAX of the old Irish cross. As they have also runic inscripFIXFRINEX tions, this style of Irish ornament has wrongly acquired IXXHM the name of runic knot-work, F4

in the Isle of Man are carved

and the Irish form of cross is often called the runic cross. These names originated at a time when archæological knowledge was less advanced than it is now, and should be rejected.

Fac-similes of the chief runic inscriptions have been conveniently collected by Dr G. Stephens of Copenhagen in his Handbook of Runic Monuments (1884), which is an abridgment of his larger work on the Old Northern Runic Monuments (3 vols. 1866-68-84). The origin of the runes is discussed by the present author in his book on The Alphabet (1883), and at greater length in a monograph entitled Greeks and Goths: a Study on the Runes (1879). The works of Dr Wimmer, Dr Bugge, Mr Haigh, and Dr Kirchhoff may also be consulted. Runjeet-Singh. See RANJIT. Runn of Cutch. See CUTCH. Runner, in Botany, is a long, slender branch proceeding from a lateral bud of a herbaceous plant with very short axis, or, in popular language, without stem. It extends along the ground, and produces buds as it proceeds, which often take

Running. See ATHLETIC SPORTS.

Runrig Lands are a species of ownership, still existing in different parts of Scotland and Ireland, under which the alternate ridges of a field belong to separate proprietors. The right of absolute, and thus this kind of possession differs the several parties to the alternate ridges is from common property. These runrig, runridge, or rundale lands, as they are variously called, are survivals of the simple form of open-field husbandry, under the tribal system once universally prevalent in the western districts of Britain, and well suited to the precarious and shifting agriculture of those times. The form of rural has lately been carefully and successfully investieconomy which gave rise to this mode of tenure gated by several students, prominent among whom is Mr Frederic Seebohm, who has published the results of his researches in his well-known work on the English Village Community. The obstruction to agricultural improvement resulting from the mixed with each other led, in the end of the 17th land being thus dispersed in small pieces intercentury, to the introduction of a mode of com

pulsory division or allotment of such lands. By statute 1695, chap. 23, it was provided that, 'wherever lands of different heritors be runrig,' application may be made to the judge ordinary or justices of the peace to the effect that these lands may be divided according to their respective interests.' This remedy, however, does not apply to burgh acres or to patches of land less than

four acres in extent.

Rupee', a silver coin current in India, of the value of 2s. English (see INDIA, Vol. VI. p. 114). Owing to the depreciation of silver, the present average value of the rupee is 1s. 24d. A lac (or lakh) of rupees is 100,000 (at the old value of 2s. = £10,000), and a crore is 10,000,000. Coins are

=

struck in silver of the value of 1, 2, 3, 4, and i rupee. The first rupee was struck by Sher Shah, the Afghan emperor of Delhi (1540-45), and was adopted by Akbar and his successors; but in the decline of the Mohammedan empire every petty chief coined his own rupee, varying in weight and value, though usually bearing the name and titles of the reigning emperor. The rupee is the official money of account in the island of Mauritius.

Rupert, PRINCE, third son of the Elector Palatine Frederick V. and Elizabeth,__daughter of James I. of England, was born at Prague on before been crowned king and queen of Bohemia. 18th December 1619, his parents having the month He studied at Leyden, and became well grounded in mathematics and religion (indeed, made Jesuitproof'), as well as in French, Spanish, and Italian, and above all the art of war. After a year and a half at the English court, where it was proposed to make a bishop of him or viceroy of Madagascar, he served in 1637-38, during the Thirty Years' War, against the Imperialists, until at Lemgo he was taken prisoner, and confined for nearly three years at Linz. In 1642 he returned to England,