they performed. Thus in Acts xii. 20. we meet with a cham- | xx. 9, 10.), 'Aurrexoup, or vine-dressers (Luke xiii. 7.); or berlain; ... Blastus, iro naraves, who had charge of the Oupapes, or door-keepers. (Mark xiii. 34. John xviii. 16, 17.) royal bedchamber, or, in modern language, the royal cham- But, whatever was the nature of their service, each was reberlain. These persons often had great influence with their quired to prosecute that particular work which was deemed masters. Those, who had large flocks of sheep and herds most suitable for him by his master or lord, whether the of cattle, which they intrusted to use, inferior shepherds, latter was at home or abroad (Mark xiii. 34. Luke xii. 42. appointed a chief shepherd, ap, to superintend them. xiv. 17. xvii. 7, 8.), with all honesty and fidelity. (Tit. ii. In 1 Pet. v. 4. this appellation is applied to the chief teacher 9, 10.)2 of religion, that is, Jesus Christ, who is to come as judge. Kings are often termed us Tv, because they watch for the safety and welfare of their subjects; and the same figure is transferred to religious teachers, who strive by their instructions and exhortations to promote the highest interests of mankind. The is and incres appear to be synonymous terms for him who had the chief charge or oversight of the property or domestic affairs of any one. This class of men had authority over the slaves of a family, and seem to have sometimes been slaves themselves. (Luke xii. 42. 1 Cor. iv. 2.) Besides the general care of affairs, the boys of a family also appear to have been intrusted to their charge; at least in regard to pecuniary matters. (Gal. iv. 4.) Schleusner considers the ps in this passage as the guardian appointed by the law or by the magistrate, and the cixovoues as one who was appointed by will. Opposed to slaves were the 'Epyara or hired labourers (Matt. xx. 1.), whether they were I, or cultivators of the soil (Luke

Among the Greeks those slaves who had conducted themselves well were manumitted, or released from bondage. The Greeks termed those who were thus liberated aĴERUS, or freed men ; which word is applied by St. Paul to him who is called into the church of Christ, while a slave, in order to denote that he is free indeed, as being made by Christ a partaker of all the privileges of the children of God. (1 Cor. vii. 22.) In some of the Grecian states, the son and heir was permitted to adopt brethren, and communicate to them the same privileges which he himself enjoyed. To this some commentators have supposed that Jesus Christ refers in John viii. 32.

Lastly, when slaves proved ungrateful to their former masters or patrons, they might be again reduced into bondage, both among the Greeks and Romans. To this usage St. Paul may refer when he exhorts the Galatian believers in Christ not to suffer the judaizing teachers again to entangle them in the yoke of bondage. (Gal. v. 1.)3

CHAPTER VI.

DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND USAGES OF THE JEWS.

I. Forms of Salutation and Politeness.-Reverence to Superiors.-II. Mode of receiving Guests or Visitors.-III. Conversation and Bathing.-IV. Food and Entertainments.-V. Mode of Travelling.—VI. Hospitality a sacred Duty among the Jews.— Account of the Tessera Hospitales of the Greeks and Romans.

I. "VARIOUS are the modes of address and politeness | no man by the way (Luke x. 4.), he designed only by this which custom has established in different nations. The Orientals were very exact in the observances of outward decorum and we may collect, from several passages in the Old and New Testament, that their salutations and expressions of regard on meeting each other were extremely tedious and tiresome, containing many minute inquiries concerning the person's welfare, and the welfare of his family and friends; and when they parted, concluding with many reciprocal wishes of happiness and benediction on each other." The ordinary formula of salutation were-The Lord be with thee!-The Lord bless thee!—and Blessed be thou of the Lord! but the most common salutation was Peace (that is, may all manner of prosperity) be with thee! (Ruth ii. 4. Judg. xix. 20. 1 Sam. xxv. 6. Psal. cxxix. 8.) In the latter ages of the Jewish polity, much time appears to have been spent in the rigid observance of these ceremonious forms, for which the modern inhabitants of the East continue to be remarkable.5 "When our Lord, therefore, in his commission to the seventy, whom he despatched into the towns and villages of Judæa to publish the Gospel, strictly ordered them to salute

1 See Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 488.

2 Robinson's Gr. Lexicon, in vocibus; Stosch's Compendium Archæologia Novi Testamenti, pp. 45, 46. Bruning, Compendium Græcarum à profanis Sacrarum, p. 86. Kuinöel, on John viii. 32.

Of the minute, not to say frivolous, inquiries and salutations above mentioned, the following is a striking illustration:-"Every passer by," says the Rev. Mr. Jowett, "has his Alla ybarakek,'-'God bless you Conversation is sometimes among strangers made up of a very large proportion of these phrases; for example, Good morning.' Answer, May your day be enriched!By seeing you. You have enlightened the house by your presence.'-' Are you happy Happy; and you, also.'You are comfortable, I am comfortable; meaning I am comfortable, if you are. These sentences are often repeated; and, after any pause, it is usual to turn to your neighbour and resume these courtesies many times." Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, p. 90. * Serious and taciturn as the natives of the East usually are, they grow has come from Asia with the Arabs, and spread over the north coast of talkative when they meet an acquaintance, and salute him. This custom Africa. A modern traveller relates the reciprocal salutations with which those are received who return with the caravans. "People go a great way to meet them: as soon as they are perceived, the questioning and salutation begins, and continues with the repetition of the same phrases: 'How do you do? God be praised that you are come in peace! God give you peace! How fares it with you? The higher the rank of the person Journal. Stolberg's History of Religion, vol. iii. p. 193. Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 486.

returning home, the longer does the salutation last." See Horneman's

prohibition that they should employ the utmost expedition; that they should suffer nothing to retard and impede them in their progress from one place to another; and should not lavish those precious moments, which ought to be devoted to the sacred and arduous duties of their office, in observing the irksome and unmeaning modes of ceremonious intercourse. Not that our Lord intended that his disciples should studiously violate all common civility and decency, and industriously offend against all the rules of courteousness and decorum, since he commanded them upon their entrance into any house to salute it (Matt. x. 12.), and observe the customary form of civility in wishing it peace (Luke x. 5.) or universal happiness. This injunction, to salute no one on the road, means only that they should urge their course with speed, and not suffer their attention to be diverted from the duties of their commission. There is a passage in the Old Testament parallel to this, and which beautifully illustrates it. Elisha, despatching his servant Gehazi to recover the son of the Shunamite, strictly enjoins him to make all the expedition possible, which is thus expressed: Gird up thy loins and take my staff in thine hand, and go thy way. If thou meet any man, salute him not, and if any salute thee, answer him not again. (2 Kings iv. 29.)

"In all countries these modes of address and politeness, though the terms are expressive of the profoundest respect and homage, yet through constant use and frequency of repetition soon degenerate into mere verbal forms and words of course, in which the heart has no share. They are a frivolous unmeaning formulary, perpetually uttered without the mind's ever annexing any idea to them. To these empty, insignificant forms, which men mechanically repeat at meeting or taking leave of each other, there is a beautiful allusion in the following expression of our Lord in that consolatory discourse which he delivered to his apostles when he saw that he would soon leave them and go to the Father. Peace them dejected and disconsolate, on his plainly assuring them I leave with you: my peace I give unto you :—not as the world giveth, give I unto you. (John xiv. 27.) Since I must shortly be taken from you, I now bid you adieu, sincerely wishing you every happiness; not as the world giveth, give I unto you; not in the unmeaning ceremonial manner the world repeats this salutation: for my wishes of peace and happiness

that the inhabitants of the oriental countries have always used more illiberal and humiliating forms of address and homage than ever obtained in Europe.

to you are sincere, and my blessing and benediction will derive upon you every substantial felicity. This sheds light and lustre upon one of the finest and most beautiful pieces of imagery which the genius and judgment of a writer ever cre- "It was also customary in those times, whenever a popular ated. In the eleventh chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, harangue was about to be delivered, and the people stood the author informs us with what warm, anticipating hopes of convened, for the orator, before he entered on his discourse, the Messiah's future kingdom those great and good men, who to stretch forth his hand towards the multitude as a token of adorned the annals of former ages, were animated. These respect to his audience, and to engage their candid attention. all, says he, died in faith, they closed their eyes upon the Frequent instances of this polite address of an orator to the world, but they closed them in the transporting assurance assembled multitude occur in the classics. In like manner that God would accomplish his promises. They had the we read that St. Paul, before he commenced his public apology firmest persuasion that the Messiah would bless the world. to the multitude, bespoke their respect and candour by beckon By faith they antedated these happy times, and placed them-ing with his hand to them. Paul said, 'I am a man who selves, in idea, in the midst of all their fancied blessedness. am a Jew of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia, a citizen of no mean They hailed this most auspicious period: saluted it, as one city; and I beseech thee suffer me to speak unto the people.' salutes a friend whose person we recognise, at a distance. And when he had given him license, Paul stood on the stairs These all died in faith, died in the firm persuasion that God and beckoned with his hand unto the people. Thus, also, in would accomplish these magnificent promises, though they the account of the tumult which happened at Ephesus, when themselves had not enjoyed them, but only had seen them the whole city was filled with confusion, some clamouring afar off: God had only blessed them with a remote prospect one thing, some another, and the mob which Demetrius had of them. They were, therefore, persuaded of them, they had raised were instigated to the last excesses of violence and the strongest conviction of their reality-they embraced fury, though, as is usual in mobs, the majority of them, as them-with transport saluted1 them at a distance, confessing the sacred historian tells us, knew not what it was that had that they were but strangers and pilgrims upon earth, but brought them together; in the midst of this confused scene were all travelling towards a city which had foundations, we read that the Jews pushed forward and placed one Alexwhose builder and maker is God."2 ander on an eminence. He, being exalted above the crowd, intended in a formal harangue to exculpate the Jews from any concern in the present disturbance. Accordingly he beckoned to them with his hand-making use of this respectful customary address to ensure their favourable regard, before he delivered his designed apology. But this specious and popular artifice, it seems, did not avail the orator; for the moment the mob understood he was a Jew, they pierced the air with their confused cries, repeating, for two hours together, Great is Diana of the Ephesians!

Respect was shown to persons on meeting, by the salutation of Peace be with you and laying the right hand upon the bosom: but if the person addressed was of the highest rank, they bowed to the earth. Thus Jacob bowed to the ground seven times until he came near to his brother Esau. (Gen. xxxiii. 3.) Such was the piety of ancient times, that masters saluted their labourers with "The Lord be with you!" to which they answered, "The Lord bless thee!" Sometimes the hem of the person's garment was kissed, and even the dust on which he had to tread. (Zech. viii. 23. Luke viii. 44. "From time immemorial it has also been the universal Acts x. 26. Psal. lxxii. 9.) Near relations and intimate custom in the East to send presents one to another. No one acquaintances kissed each other's hands, head, neck, beard waits upon an eastern prince, or any person of distinction, (which on such occasions only could be touched without without a present. This is a token of respect which is never affront), or shoulders. (Gen. xxxiii. 4. xlv. 14. 2 Sam. xx. 9. dispensed with. How mean and inconsiderable soever the Luke xv. 20. Acts xx. 37.) The modern Arabs salute their gift, the intention of the giver is accepted. Plutarch informs chiefs by kissing either cheek alternately. Whenever the us that a peasant happening to fall in the way of Artaxerxes common people approach their prince, or any person of the Persian monarch in one of his excursions, having nothing superior rank, it was customary for them to prostrate them- to present to his sovereign, according to the oriental custom, selves before him. "In particular, this homage was univer- the countryman immediately ran to an adjacent stream, filled sally paid to the monarchs of Persia by those who were admit- both his hands, and offered it to his prince. The monarch, ted into their presence; a homage, in which some of the Greek says the philosopher, smiled and graciously received it, highly commanders, possessed of a truly liberal and manly spirit, pleased with the good dispositions this action manifested. peremptorily refused to gratify them. In imitation of these All the books of modern travellers into the East, Sandys, proud sovereigns, Alexander the Great exacted a similar pros- Thevenot, Maundrell, Shaw, Pococke, Norden, Hasselquist," tration. This mode of address obtained also among the Jews. Light, Clarke, Morier, Ouseley, Buckingham, and others, When honoured with admittance to their sovereign, or intro-" abound with numberless examples of this universally preduced to illustrious personages, they fell down at their feet, valent custom of waiting upon great men with presentsand continued in this servile posture till they were raised. unaccompanied with which, should a stranger presume to There occur many instances of this custom in the New Tes- enter their houses, it would be deemed the last outrage and tament. The wise men who came from the East, when violation of politeness and respect. It was, therefore, agreethey saw the child Jesus with his mother Mary, fell down ably to this oriental practice which obtains in all these counand worshipped him. Great numbers of those who approached tries to this day, that the wise men, when they entered the our Saviour fell down at his feet. We read of several of the house to which the star had directed them, and saw the child common people who prostrated themselves before him and and his mother, after they had prostrated themselves before worshipped him. Cornelius, at his first interview with him, and paid him the profoundest homage, as the evangelist Peter, when he met him, fell down before him and worshipped informs us, opened their treasures, and testified their sense him, and remained in this submissive attitude till Peter took of the dignity of his person, by respectfully making him rich him up; saying, Stand up: I also am a man. In the Old presents, consisting of gold, frankincense, and myrrh." Testament we read that Esther fell down at the feet of Ahasuerus. These prostrations among the eastern people appear to us to the last degree unmanly and slavish ; but it seems 'Aruasaμivos. The word always used in salutations. See Romans xvi. passim. Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 279-283.

1

pro.

Not unlike the above, are the salutations in use at this time among the Turks. "Say to a Turk, according to custom, 'May your morning be pitious! he replies, 'May you be the pledge of God! Ask a Turk, 'Is your health good?' he answers, Glory be to God! Salute him as you pass him rapidly in travelling, he exclaims, 'May God be merciful to you! At parting he addresses you, To God I commend you !' and is answered, May God be with you.""-Hartley's Researches in Greece, p. 233. • Irby's and Mangles' Travels, p. 262.

› Vereor ne civitati meæ sit opprobrio, si quum ex ea sim profectus, que cæteris gentibus imperare consueverit, potius barbarorum quam ilus more fungar? C. Nepos, Conon. p. 153. The Athenians punished a person with death for submitting to this slavish prostration. Athenienses aurem Timagoram inter officium salutationis Darium regem more gentis tas adulatum, capitali supplicio affecerunt; unius civis humilibus blan is totius urbis suæ decus Persicæ dominationi summissum graviter fe rentes. Valerius Maximus, lib. vi. cap. 3. p. 561. Torrenii, Leidæ, 1726. Qui ubi in castra Romana et prætorium pervenerunt, more adulantium, accepto, credo, ritu ex eâ regione ex quâ oriundi erant, procubuerunt. Conveniens oratio tam humili adulationi. Livius, lib. xxx. cap. 16. tom. iii. p 10. edit. Ruddiman. VOL. II.

Y

II. When any person visited another, he stood at the gate (as is still usual in India)10 and knocked, or called aloud, until the person on whom he called admitted him. (2 Kings v. 9 -12. Prov. viii. 34. Acts x. 17. xii. 13. 16.) If the visitor was a person of extraordinary dignity, it was customary to send persons of rank, who were followed by others of still greater rank, to meet him, and do him honour. Thus Balak sent princes more and more honourable to meet Balaam (Num. xxii. 15.), and the same custom obtains to this day in Persia." Visitors were always received and dismissed with great respect. On their arrival water was brought to wash their feet, water was also poured upon their hands (2 Kings iii.

Plutarch's Morals, vol. p. i. 299. edit. Gr. Stephani.

The common present now inade to the great in these countries is a horse: an ass might formerly answer the same purpose, and to this Moses probably alludes in Num. xvi. 15. as well as Samuel (1 Sam. xii. 3.), particularly as asses were then deemed no dishonourable beast for the saddle. See Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 243. • Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 284-289. 10 Statham's Indian Recollections, p. 113. 11 Morier's Second Journey, p. 129.

11. Gen. xviii. 4. xix. 2.), and the guests were anointed with drank wine, while the descendants are obliged to abstain from oil. David alludes to this in Psal. xxiii. 5. The same prac-it; and we are well assured, that the effect of this exhilarating tice obtained in our Saviour's time. Thus we find Mary beverage was to communicate no little vivacity to the cha Magdalene approaching him at an entertainment, and, as a racters of the ancient Asiatics, at least to that of the Hebrews. mark of the highest respect and honour she could confer, (See Isa. xxx. 29. Jer. vii. 34. xxx. 19. Amos vi. 4,5.) The breaking an alabaster vase full of the richest perfume and ancient Asiatics, among whom we include the Hebrews, were pouring it on his head. Our Lord's vindication to Simon, delighted with singing, with dancing, and with instruments of the behaviour of this woman, presents us with a lively of music. Promenading, so fashionable and so agreeable in idea of the civilities in those times ordinarily paid to guests colder latitudes, was wearisome and unpleasant in the warm on their arrival, but which marks of friendship and respect climates of the East, and this is probably one reason why had (it seems) been neglected by this Pharisee, at whose the inhabitants of those climates preferred holding intercourse house Jesus Christ then was. He turned to the woman, and with one another, while sitting near the gate of the city, or said unto Simon, Seest thou this woman? I entered into thine beneath the shade of the fig tree and the vine. (1 Sam. xxii. house, and thou gavest me NO WATER FOR MY FEET, but she 6. Micah iv. 4.) It is for the same reason also that we so hath WASHED MY FEET with her tears, and wiped them with the frequently hear in the Hebrew Scriptures of persons sitting hairs of her head. Thou gavest me no KISS: but this woman, down, as in the following passage: Blessed is the man that since I came in, hath not ceased to KISS MY FEET. Mine HEAD standeth not in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of the with ou thou didst not anoint; but this woman hath ANOINTED scornful.' (See Psal. i. 1. cvii. 32. lxxxix. 7. cxi. 1. lxiv. 2. MY FEET with ointment, (Luke vii. 44-46.) To this prac-1. 20. xxvi. 5.) tice of anointing, Solomon alludes (Prov. xxvii. 9.); and among the Babylonians it was usual to present sweet odours. (Dan. ii. 46.) It is still the custom in Egypt, among the Arabs and other nations, thus to treat their guests, and, when they are about to depart, to burn the richest perfumes.3 The ceremony of washing the feet is still observed among the Christians of Assalt in Palestine, towards all strangers who come amongst them as guests or visitors. An elevated seat, in the corner of the room, was considered as the post of honour. (Isa. xxxviii. 2.) Among the Asiatic sovereigns it is a common custom to give both garments and money to ambassadors, and persons of distinction whom they wish to honour hence they keep in their wardrobes several hundred changes of raiment ready for presents of this kind. This usage obtained in Egypt, where Joseph gave changes of raiment to his brethren, and to his brother Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver, besides five changes of raiment. (Gen. xlv. 22.) That such were given by way of reward and honour, see Judg. xiv. 12. 19. Rev. vi. 11. and vii. 9. 14.6 III. "Conversation, in which the ancient Orientals indulged like other men, in order to beguile the time, was held in the gate of the city. Accordingly, there was an open space near the gate of the city, as is the case at the present day in Mauritania, which was fitted up with seats for the accommodation of the people. (Gen. xix. 1. Psal. lxix. 12.) Those who were at leisure occupied a position on these seats, and either amused themselves with witnessing those who came in and those who went out, and with any trifling occurrences that might offer themselves to their notice, or attended to the judicial trials, which were commonly investigated at public places of this kind, viz. the gate of the city. (Gen. xix. 1. xxxiv. 20. Psal. xxvi. 4, 5. lxix. 12. exxvii. 5. Ruth iv. 11. Isa. xiv. 31.) Intercourse by conversation, though not very frequent, was not so rare among the ancient Orientals, as among their descendants of modern Asia, except perhaps in Palestine. Nor is this to be wondered at, since the fathers "The oriental method of washing is universally different from that

practised in the West. Nowhere is water poured previously into a basin; but the servant pours water from a pitcher upon the hands of his master The custom of washing hands prevails also to this day. The servant goes round to all the guests, with a pitcher and with a vessel to receive the water falling from the hands, and performs the office attributed to Elisha," in 2 Kings iii. 11. "The same service is repeated when the repast is It is worthy of remark that Otto of Roses, which is the finest perfume imported from the East at this time, is contained in pots or vases, with covers so firmly luted to the top, that it requires force and breaking to separate them, before the perfume can be poured out. Does not this explain the action of Mary Magdalene?

ended." Hartley's Researches in Greece, pp. 233, 231.

See several instances of this custom in Harmer's Observations, vol. ii.

pp. 378-392.

Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, p. 24.
Bp. Lowth's Isaiah, vol. ii. pp. 242, 243.

"The bath was always very agreeable to the inhabitants of the East (Ruth iii. 3. 2 Sam. xi. 2. 2 Kings v. 10.); and it is not at all surprising that it should have been so, since it is not only cooling and refreshing, but is absolutely necessary in order to secure a decent degree of cleanliness in a climate where there is so much exposure to dust. The bath is frequently visited by eastern ladies, and may be reckoned among their principal recreations. Those Egyptians, who lived at the earliest period of which we have any account, were in the habit of bathing in the waters of the Nile. (Exod. ii. 5. vii. 13-25.) It was one of the civil laws of the Hebrews, that the bath should be used. The object of the law, without doubt, was to secure a proper degree of cleanliness among them. (Lev. xiv. 2. xv. 1—8. xvii. 15, 16. xxii. 6. Num. xix. 7.) We may, therefore, consider it as probable, that public baths, soon after the enactment of this law, were erected in Palestine, of a construction similar to that of those which are so frequently seen at the present day in the East. "The Orientals, when engaged in conversation, are very candid and mild, and do not feel themselves at liberty dírectly to contradict the person with whom they are conversing, although they may at the same time be conscious that he is telling them falsehoods. The ancient Hebrews, in particular, very rarely used any terms of reproach more severe than those of (Satan), adversary or opposer, ¬¬ (RACAH), contemptible, and sometimes (NaBaL), fool, an expression which means a wicked man or an atheist. (Job ii. 10. Psal. xiv. 1. Isa. xxxii. 6. Matt. v. 22. xvi. 23.) When any thing was said, which was not acceptable, the dissatisfied person replied, let it suffice thee (Deut. iii. 26.), or, it is enough. (Luke xxii. 38.) In addressing a superior, the Hebrews did not commonly use the pronouns of the first and second persen; but, instead of I, they said thy servant, and instead of thou, they employed the words my lord. Instances of this mode of expression occur in Gen. xxxii. 4. lxiv. 16. 19. xlvi. 34. Dan. x. 17. and Luke i. 38.

"The formula of assent or affirmation was as follows:

Thou hast said, or thou hast rightly said. We are informed by the traveller Aryda, that this is the prevailing mode of a person's expressing his assent or affirmation to this day, in the wish to assert any thing in express terms. This explains the vicinity of Mount Lebanon, especially where he does not answer of the Saviour to the high-priest Caiaphas in Matt. xxvi. 64., when he was asked, whether he was the Christ the Son of God, and replied, Tu aras, thou hast said.

The

"To spit in company in a room, which was covered with a carpet, was an indication of great rusticity of manners; but in case there was no carpet, it was not accounted a fault in a person, provided he spat in the corner of the room. Jahn, Archæol. Bibl. §§ 176, 177. Harwood, vol. ii. p. 117. "It is no uncommon thing," says the Rev. Mr. Jowett, "to see an in his face, is to be understood literally, the more so on this expression, therefore, in Deut. xxv. 7-9., viz. he shall spit individual, or a group of persons, even when very well dressed, sitting with their feet drawn under them, upon the bare earth, passing whole account, because in other places, where spitting, buffeting, hours in idle conversation. Europeans would require a chair; but the na. &c. are mentioned, they occur under circumstances, where tives here prefer the ground: in the heat of summer and autumn it is there existed a great excitement of feeling, and because there pleasant to them to while away their time in this manner, under the shade of a tree. Richly adorned females, as well as men, may often be seen are not wanting instances of even greater rudeness and viothus amusing themselves. As may naturally be expected, with whatever lence, than that of spitting in one's face. (Matt. xxvi. 67. care they may at first sitting down choose their place, yet the flowing dress Mark xiv. 65. comp. 1 Kings xxii. 24. Isa. lvii. 4. Ezek. ii. arise, adjust themselves, shake off the dust, and then sit down again." 6. XXV. 6. 2 Sam. xvi. 6, 7.) The Orientals, as is very well This usage beautifully illustrates Isa. lii. 2. Shake thyself from the dust-known, are fond of taking a nap at noon, to which they are arise sit down, O Jerusalem. The sense of these expressions, to an Ori- strongly invited by the oppressive heat of their climate. to the dust of suffering and oppression, is commanded to arise and shake (2 Sam. iv. 5. xi. 2. Matt. xiii. 25.) The phrase, to cover herself from that dust; and then, with grace and dignity, and composure one's feet, is used in certain instances to express the custom and security, to sit down: to take, as it were, again, her seat and her rank of retiring to rest or sleeping at this time. (Judg. iii. 24. amid the company of the nations of the earth, which had before afflicted her, and trampled her to the earth." Jowett's Christian Researches in 1 Sam. xxiv. 4.)"8 Syria, pp. 282, 283.

by degrees gathers up the dust: as this occurs, they from time to time

ental, is extremely natural. "The captive daughter of Zion, brought down

• Mr. Upham's translation of Jahn's Archeologia B.blica, pp. 194-196

IV. The Jews rose early, about the dawn of day, when | ment in the house. 10 The lightest bread, which was made of they breakfasted. They dined about eleven in the forenoon, the finest flour, and was made quickly upon the hearth, they and supped at five in the afternoon. From this circum-called cakes (Gen. xviii. 6.); the larger and coarser sort were stance of their breakfasting so early, Dr. Lightfoot endeavours called loaves. (1 Sam. xxi. 3.) The cakes were anciently to account for the language of the evangelists John (xix. 14.) | baked upon the hearth (Gen. xviii. 6.): afterwards, this was and Mark (xv. 25.) concerning our Lord's crucifixion. The done upon the coals, being probably laid upon some grate. former notices the time from the preparation of the passover; (1 Kings xix. 6.) But the Holy Bread was baked in an oven. and the latter, the time of the day. The preparation began at (Lev. ii. 4.) The fuel, used for this and other culinary purthe dawn or cock-crowing. From this custom, too, the term poses, consisted of thorns, wood of all kinds, and in general, to rise early denotes diligence, either in doing good or evil. as their sure supply, the dung of cows, asses, or camels," Supper appears to have been the principal meal among the dried and collected into heaps (Lam. iv. 5.): grass, also, was Jews, as it was among the Greeks and Romans. employed for the same purpose. (Matt. vi. 30.) The knowledge of this circumstance illustrates Eccles. vii. 6. Psal. lviii. 9. Amos iv. 11. Zech. iii. 2. Isa. vii. 4. and especially Ezek. iv. 12. In order to show the extremity of distress, to which the Jews would be reduced in the captivity, the prophet was to prepare the most common provisions and to bake the bread with human dung. Nothing could paint more strongly a case of extreme necessity than this; and the Jews would so understand this sign.12

From the whole of the sacred history, it is evident that the food of the Jews was of the simplest nature, consisting principally of milk, honey,2 rice, vegetables, and sometimes of locusts, except at the appointed festivals, or when they offered their feast-offerings; at these times they ate animal food, of which they appear to have been very fond (Num. xi. 4.), when (as is done at this day throughout the East) the guests dipped their hands in the dish. (Ruth ii. 14. Matt. xxvi. 23. John xiii. 26.) The pottage of lentiles and bread, which Jacob had prepared, and which was so tempting to the impatient Esau as to make him sell his birthright, shows the simplicity of the ordinary diet of the patriarchs. (Gen. xxv. 34.) The same diet is in use among the modern Arabs, and in the Levant. Isaac in his old age longed for savoury meat, which was accordingly prepared for him (Gen. xxvii. 4. 17.); but this was an unusual thing. The feast with which Abraham entertained the three angels was a calf, new cakes baked on the hearth, together with butter (ghee) and milk.8 (Gen. xviii. 6, 7.) We may form a correct idea of their ordinary articles of food by those which were presented to David on various occasions by Abigail (1 Sam. xxv. 18.), by Ziba (2 Sam. xvi. 1.), and by Barzillai. (2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29.)

The Hebrews were forbidden to eat many things which were, and are, eaten by other nations; some animals being unclean according to the Mosaic Law (those, for instance, which were either actually impure and abominable, or were esteemed so); others being set apart for the altar, certain parts of which it was, consequently, not lawful to eat. The regulations concerning clean and unclean animals are principally recorded in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv.; and according to them, the following articles are reckoned unclean, and, consequently, are interdicted to the Hebrews; viz. 1. Quadrupeds, which do not ruminate, or which have cloven feet;2. Serpents and creeping insects; also certain insects which sometimes fly, and sometimes advance upon their feet; but locusts, in all their four stages of existence, are accounted clean;-3. Certain species of birds, many of the names of The most useful and strengthening, as well as the most which are obscure;-4. Fishes without scales, and also those common, article of food, was, doubtless, bread. Frequent without fins ;-5. All food, all liquids, standing in a vessel, mention is made of this simple diet in the Holy Scriptures, and all wet seed into which the dead body of any unclean which do not often mention the flesh of animals: though this beast had fallen;-6. All food and liquids, which stood in is sometimes included in the eating of bread, or making a meal, the tent or chamber of a dying or dead man, remaining as in Matt. xv. 2. Mark iii. 20. vii. 2. Luke xiv. 1, and John meanwhile in an uncovered vessel (Num. xix. 15.);— vi. 23. Sometimes the ears were gathered and the grain 7. Every thing which was consecrated by any one to idols eaten, before the corn was reaped; in the earliest times, after (Exod. xxxiv. 15.): it was this prohibition, that in the priit had been threshed and dried, it was eaten without any fur- mitive church occasioned certain dissensions, upon which ther preparation. This was called parched corn. Subsc- Paul frequently remarks, especially in 1 Cor. viii. 10.;quently, the grain was pounded in a mortar, to which prac-8. A kid boiled in the milk of its mother. (Exod. xxiii. 19. tice Solomon alludes. (Prov. xxvii. 22.) In later times, xxxiv. 26. Deut. xiv. 21.) This was prohibited either to however, it was in general ground into flour, fermented with enforce the duty of humanity to animals, or to guard the leaven, and made into bread; though on certain occasions, as Hebrews against some idolatrous or superstitious practice of at the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, they baked the heathen nations. unleavened bread. (Exod. xii. 34-39.) In the East the grinding of corn was, and still is, the work of female slaves: it is extremely laborious, and is esteemed the lowest employ

Roman Antiqinties, p. 433.

Compare Mark vi. 21. Luke xiv. 16. and John xii. 2.; and see Abp. Potter's Antiquiues of Greece, vol. ii. p. 353. and Dr. Adam's Summary of The ancients used honey instead of sugar, and seem to have relished it much. Hence it is figuratively used as an image of pleasure and happiness in Psal. cxix. 103. Prov. xxiv. 13, 14. and SOL Song iv. 11. When taken in great quantities it causes vomiting, and is consequently used by a figure (Prov. xxv. 16.) to express fastidiousness, or any nauseating sensation. (Jahn's Biblical Archæology, § 77.) In consequence of the too liberal use of honey, as a substitute for sugar, by the modern inhabitants of the Cy. clades Islands in the Levant, many of them are affected with scrofulous diseases. May not this effect be alluded to in Prov. xxv. 27.3 (Emerson's

Letters from the Ægean, vol. ii. p. 233.)

la later times, when the Jews were dispersed among the heathen nations, they often abstained from eating flesh, as it might have been offered to idols and sold in shambles; they therefore subsisted entirely on vegetables. To this circumstance Saint Paul alludes in Rom. xiv. 2.

See examples in Shaw's Travels, vol. i. p. 418. and Jowett's Christian

Researches in Syria, p. 284.

vol. ii. p. 127.)

• Irby's and Mangles' Travels, p. 275. • In the island of Santorin, Mr. Emerson speaks of soup made of lentils; which, when stewed, are of a reddish tinge, and so far agree with the red pottage of Jacob, mentioned in Gen. xxv. 30. 34. (Letters from the Egean, A young kid seethed in milk is to this day a delicacy set before strangers by the Bedouin Arabs. Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, p. 7. Milk and honey were the chief dainties of the ancients, as they still are among the Arabs, and especially the Bedouins. Hence the land of Canaan is described as a land flowing with milk and honey. (Exod. iii. 8.) Butter is also an article much in use, as is attested by all modern travellers. See particularly Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, p. 385. Irby's and Mangles' Travels in Egypt, &c. pp. 263. 481, 482.

Thus, in Gen. xviii. 5. and I Sam. xxviii. 22. we read, I will fetch a morBel of BREAD.-Gen. xxi. 14. Abraham took BREAD, and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar-Gen. xxxvii. 25. They sat down to EAT BREAD. -Gen. xliii. 31. Joseph said, Set on BREAD.-Exod. ii. 20. Call him that he may EAT READ.-Exod. xvi. 3. We did EAT BREAD to the full.-Deut. ix. 9. I weather did BAT BREAD, nor drink water.-1 Sam. xxviii. 20. Saul had EATEN 110 BREAD all the day, &c.

The consecrated animal substances interdicted to the Hebrews were, 1. Blood (Lev. xvii. 10. xix. 26. Deut. xii. 16-23, 24. xv. 23.) ;—2. Animals which had either died of disease or had been torn by wild beasts, though strangers might eat them if they chose (Exod. xxii. 31. Deut. xiv. 26.);-3. The fat covering the intestines, termed the net or caul;-4. The fat upon the intestines, called the mesentery, &c.;-5. The fat of the kidneys;-6. The fat tail or rump of certain sheep. (Exod. xxix. 13–22. Lev. iii. 4—9, 10. ix. 19.)13

Many ingenious conjectures have been assigned for these prohibitions; but the Scriptures, which are our safest guide in inquiries of this kind, expressly inform us, that the design of them was both moral and political. This is declared in Lev. xx. 24-26. I am the Lord your GOD, who have separated you from other people; ye shall therefore put difference between clean beasts and unclean; and ye shall not make yourselves abominable by beast or by fowl, or by any living thing that creepeth on the ground, which I have separated from you as unclean: and ye shall be holy unto me, for I the Lord am holy, and have severed you from other people that ye should be mine. As if the Almighty had said, "I have selected you from, and have exalted you far above, the heathen and idolatrous world. Let it be your care to conduct yourselves worthy of this distinction. Let the quality of your food, as well as the rites of ro Bp. Lowth's Isaiah, vol. ii. p. 294.

11 "Mahomet, our camel-driver, made bread: he kneaded the dough in a leathern napkin; and, mixing a good deal of salt with it, made a flat round cake, about half an inch thick, and baked it on dried camels' dung." Irby's and Mangles' Travels, p. 172. A similar mode of preparing cakes is described by Mr. Rae Wilson. Travels in the Holy Land, &c. vol. ii. p. 156. 3d edition.

12 Boothroyd's translation of the Bible, vol. i. p. 60.

13 Jahn, Archæol. Bibl. § 143. The Mosaic ordinances respecting clean and unclean beasts are fully considered by Michaelis, Commentaries vol. ii pp. 219-254.

Spiced wines were not peculiar to the Jews. The celebrated Persian poet, Hafiz, speaks of wine-"richly bitter, richly sweet." The Romans lined their vessels (amphora) with odorous gums, to give the wine a warm bitter flavour; and it is said that the Poles and Spaniards adopt a similar method, in order to impart to their wines a favourite relish. (Odes of Hafiz, translated by Nott, p. 30. note.) The juice of the pomegranate tree is often employed in the East, to give a pleasant sub-acid flavour to a variety of beverages; and where the laws of the Koran are not allowed to inter-ii. pose, or their prohibitions are disregarded, a delicious wine is frequently manufactured from this juice alone. Harmer's Observations, vol. ii. pp. 145, 146. See p. 71. of this volume.