tarians. Ministers are elected whose theology is in general agreement with that of the congregations; but no subscription or declaration of faith is required of them. These congregations number about 280 in England, 35 in Wales, 10 in Scotland, 40 in Ireland. For list of these and of ministers, and of various societies, etc., which are Unitarian in constitution or promote Unitarianism, see "Unitarian Almanack" (an unofficial publication by Jas. Black, 20, Cannon Street, Manchester). The British and Foreign Unitarian Association is not representative, but consists of individual subscribers desirous of promoting "the Principles of Unitarian Christianity.' It refuses to affiliate congregations with itself, or to enrol any member as representing a congregation, lest the freedom of the churches should be compromised; and for the same reason it will not build or endow any property with a Unitarian trust. At the annual meeting in 1866 a motion to "define Unitarianism was rejected by a very large majority; and subsequently the Association has declined a munificent offer for building purposes, because it is contrary to its principles to endow any society on a dogmatic basis. The new hall and offices of the Association about to be opened in Essex Street will not be the property of the Association, but will be held on an open trust, and will be used by the Unitarian Association, the Sunday School Association, and such other bodies as the trustees think fit. The Association claims no authority over churches or ministers, and is as active in the cause of religious liberty and the spread of a simple and devout Christianity, as in the cause of Unitarian theology. The only technically Unitarian College is that of the Unitarian Home Missionary Board in Manchester, which educates for the ministry students who are not able to enter Manchester New College (q.v.), where most of the leading Unitarian ministers are trained. There are at

Norfolk Street, Strand-shortly to be removed to
Essex Street.
Unit, Astronomical. See ASTRONOMY.
"United Right," The. See FRENCH POLITI-
CAL PARTIES.

United States. A confederation of thirtyeight sovereign states united together by a federal bond for imperial objects, the local administration being reserved to each state. By the constitution of 1787 and subsequent amendments the government is intrusted to three separate authorities-the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The first is vested in a president elected for four years by electors appointed by each separate state. He is commander of the national forces, and has a veto on all laws passed by Congress, although a bill may become law in spite of his veto, on afterwards being passed by a two-third majority of each House of Congress. The administration is conducted under immediate authority of the president by seven ministers chosen by him, and holding office at his pleasure though confirmed by the senate. A vice-president is also chosen in the same manner; he is ex officio president of the senate, and in case of the death or resignation of the president he assumes his office for the remainder of the term and the senate elects a temporary vicepresident. The legislative power is vested in Congress, which consists of (1) a senate of 76 members-viz., two chosen by each state legislature for six years-who confirm or reject all appointments by president, and its members constitute a court of impeachment, with power only to remove or disqualify from office; (2) of a house of representatives of 325 members, chosen every two years by all duly qualified male citizens and apportioned among the states according to population. In addition to the representatives, delegates from "territories" (not yet organised into states) are entitled to debate on matters pertinent to their interests, but must not vote. The Congress may propose an amendment to the constitution if two-thirds of both houses deem it necessary; and such amendment shall be deemed to be incorporated in constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states. judicial power is confided to a supreme court (the members of which are nominated by the president for life) with power to interpret the constitution, to decide all disputes between the federal government and the individual states, and to hear all causes arising under the federal laws, etc. Perfect equality is accorded to all religions; education free and general, although backward in some of the former slave states, the cost is met from state or local funds, and the federal government contributes a portion. The power to enact municipal laws is reserved to the states of which the constitutions and modes of administration bear a close resemblance to each other-the executive being confided to a governor and the legislative to one or two chambers, as the case may be. Roughly speaking, each state has voluntarily surrendered to the central government all federal matters, including taxation for federal purposes only, while reserving the right to administer all local affairs and to impose local taxes at its pleasure. The soil of the United States not included within the boundaries of an individual state are divided into eight "territories," the districts of Columbia, Alaska, and three Indian territories. When duly qualified by population,

present two chief schools of thought among Unitarians: one regarding Jesus as a divinely appointed and authoritative teacher having miraculous powers, the other regarding Him simply as the greatest of moral and religious teachers, not possessed of any supernatural knowledge or power. The intuitive philosophy, of which Dr. Martineau, a Unitarian minister, and late principal of Manchester New College, is the ablest living exponent, prevails almost universally among Unitarians. There is a triennial Conference of non-subscribing congregations, which consists almost entirely of Unitarians (last held at Birmingham, April 1885). Unitarian theology prevails extensively among the "liberal" theologians and clergy of Germany, Holland, and the Protestant Cantons of Switzerland. The professedly Unitarian congregations of the United States number 339; of these 232 are in New England, many of them being old Puritan foundations. Both in England and America Unitarianism must be estimated by its influence upon society and religious thought rather than the number of its professed adherents. Much of the high moral tone and religious earnestness of the old Puritanism remains among the Unitarians of the present day; and again Unitarian theology, with its freedom of Scriptural criticism, is to be found here and there in almost every section of the Christian Church. Unitarian books, periodicals, tracts, etc., and all information as to Unitarian congregations, may be had at the offices of the British and Foreign Unitarian Association, 37,

The

etc., it is competent for the confederacy to form the territories into new "states" and admit them into the Union. There is also a "district of Columbia," a neutral territory under the direct government of the confederacy, in which is situated the capital, Washington. The total area of the Union is 3,501,404 square miles; the population, by census of 1880, 50,497,057; the estimated population in 1885 was 57,000,000. The revenue for 1886 is estimated at about £66,000,000; the expenditure about £65,000,000; the national debt on January 1st, 1885, amounted to £283,709,070, exclusive of £12,924,000 bonds issued by the Pacific railways under federal guarantee. There also exist local debts in nearly all the states, amounting in 1884 to about £52,700,000. The army is limited by Act of Congress to 25,000 men and 2,155 officers; the actual strength is about 27,000. In addition, each state is supposed to have a militia, in which all men from eighteen to forty-five, capable of bearing arms, should be enrolled. The strength of the navy is difficult to state precisely. In 1884, of 87 vessels, only 31 were estimated to be efficient, but efforts have been made during the past two years to place the service on a more efficient footing. Imports in 1885 (June 1884-85) about £156,000,000; the exports about £200,000,000, chiefly grain, raw materials, and domestic produce, about 58 per cent. of the exports go to Great Britain alone, while about one-fourth of the imports come from that country. The principal industry is agriculture, timber trade, and mining -the iron and cotton manufacturing industry is large, though fostered by protective duties; the shipping industry is practically confined to the coasting trade through the operation of the tariff. The domestic history since the close of the great civil war presents few features of note. In 1870, by amendment of the constitution, negroes were admitted to equal rights with whites. Proposals for the purchase of the Island of St. Thomas from Denmark and for the annexation of St. Domingo were rejected. In May 1871 a treaty agreeing to the reference to arbitration of the Alabama claims, fishery question, and San Juan boundary, signed with Great Britain. The first meeting of the international commission appointed under this treaty took place on December 18th, at Geneva. Claim by United States in their case for indirect damages by Alabama and other vessels, made in January 1872; continual negotiations as to matters to be laid before the tribunal caused its sitting to be adjourned to December 1872. The claim for indirect damages was finally disallowed, but on the other points the decision was mainly in favour of the United States, and damages to the amount of £3,229,166 were awarded, and payment promptly made by

Great Britain.

The Modoc Indians, near

Canada rejected by senate in February 1875. Colorado and New Mexico territories admitted as new states into the Union. Severe defeat of General Custer by Sioux Indians on June 25th, 1876. Election for president in December resulted in Mr. Hayes receiving 185 and Mr. Tilden 184 votes; neither securing the necessary majority, and several votes being challenged a tribunal for the purpose being chosen in January 1877, confirmed the election of Mr. Hayes, who was accordingly installed in March. A great strike of railway servants on the Baltimore and Ohio railway, and riots in West Virginia and the Pennsylvanian coalfields. Reign of terror succeeded, and the military defeated at Pittsburg. Tranquillity finally restored by General Sheridan in July, after damages to the amount of £8,000,000. Bland's bill, making silver the standard instead of gold, was vetoed by the president in February 1878, but subsequently passed into law. Gold reaching par on December 18th, 1878, for the first time since December 1872, cash payments were resumed on January 2nd, 1879. An attempt was made in 1880 to nominate General Grant once more as a candidate for the presidency; but the feeling of the electors being strongly opposed to the election of any person, however distinguished, for a third term, General Garfield (q.v.) and Mr. Arthur (q.v.) were nominated by the republicans, and General Hancock and Mr. English by the Democrats, as president and vice-president respectively; and on November 2nd the two former were elected and duly inaugurated on March 4th following. Garfield in his message claimed for his country the right of supervision over the Panama canal (q.v.), proposed by M. de Lesseps (q.v.), and promised civil service and financial reforms. On July 2nd he was shot by an assassin (Guiteau), and died of his wounds on September 19th, being succeeded by the vice-president, Mr. Arthur. On October 19th the centenary of the surrender of the British army at Yorktown was duly celebrated. At the close of the proceedings the British flag was formally saluted by the military and naval forces, in recognition of the strong friendship existing between Great Britain and the United States. In 1882 the elections for the house of representatives resulted in a majority for the Democrats. In March an act imposing stringent penalties upon the practice of polygamy was passed, and the "Chinese question was temporarily disposed of by the suspension of immigration from China for ten years. March 3rd, the day before the expiration of the forty-seventh Congress, a tariff act was passed to prevent the too rapid reduction of the national debt, and to mitigate the excessive taxation by which such reduction had hitherto been maintained, by repealing inland duties and revising the customs in the interest of protection. Mention was made in the president's message of negotiations with Switzerland for the settlement by arbitration of all questions between the two governments. In consequence of the dynamite outrages in England the law was ordered to be most strictly enforced in order to prevent the shipment of explosives for criminal purposes. After an extremely close contest the Democratic candidate, Mr. Cleveland, was elected president in futuro, the defeat of his opponent, Mr. Blaine, being mainly due to the secession of the independent members of the republican party in disgust at the selfish and corrupt tactics of his supporters.

Oregon, repelled troops sent to remove them to other lands in January 1873. After a defence conducted with heroic gallantry against overwhelming forces, the Indians were subdued in June. General Grant (q.v.), who had been re-elected president, began his second term in March. Cash payments in silver were resumed in October. In April 1874 President Grant vetoed a bill for creating inconvertible paper money. Conflicts between blacks and whites in Mississippi in April. Insurrection of negroes in Tennessee in August suppressed. Insurrection of whites in New Orleans in September also suppressed. New reciprocity treaty with

On

In January 1885 an extremely stringent law upon the sale of explosives was passed. On July 23rd General Grant died, after a long and severe illness, and received a magnificent public funeral. --President Cleveland's Message, among other matters, recommended the reduction of duties upon imported necessaries, and also that the further coinage of silver be suspended.—1886. January. Committee of Congress on Coinage appointed, to consider and report on the silver question, which is now attracting great public interest. The Mormon Suppression Bill passed the Senate (see MORMONS) by 38 to 7 votes. House of Representatives by 183 votes to 77 passed the Presidential Succession Bill, adopted by the Senate, which determines the succession by giving it to the cabinet ministers. -February. Outrages against the Chinese in the western states. Protest of the Chinese Government, and claim for losses of its subjects. Resolution referred to the House by the Ways and Means Committee, providing that whenever the amount in treasury exceeds $100,000,000, not less than $10,000,000 per month shall be applied to payment of the debt. Customs Tariff Bill introduced.-March. Extensive,tremway frauds discovered in New York. Serious labour strikes, accompanied with violence, necessitating military intervention. - April 5th. Agitation still continuing. Resolution proposed to the House with reference to rigorous treatment of American fishermen by Canada, and calling the attention of the British Government to the fact. Universal Prime Meridian and Universal Day, The. In 1883 an International Conference was held at Washington, to discuss the question of adopting a prime meridian" for universal use, and in connection there with to settle on a uniform basis the various modes of time-reckoning in use in different countries. The Conference was primarily concerned with astronomical matters, but the resolutions arrived at closely affect our everyday occupations. In the first place it was agreed that the meridian of Greenwich should be the "prime meridian" from which all calculations of longitude should be made. Hitherto nearly every country has had a "prime meridian" of its own. In English maps the longitude of every place is stated to be so many degrees east or west of Greenwich; in French maps the starting-point is Paris; in Germany it is Feris Island, and so on. Hence a person looking at a map published in England would find, say Bermuda, placed in longitude 65° west (of Greenwich), while on a map published in France it would be shown in longitude 67° 20' west (of Paris). An English and a French ship, meeting at sea, would find that there would be a difference of 29 20' between the records of their longitude. The Conference decided that this anomaly should be abolished, and that longitude should be reckoned only from the meridian of Greenwich, and that it should count 180° east and 180° west; so that in future all maps will be constructed on this principle, and ships of every nation, meeting at sea, will find themselves in the same degree of longitude, instead of, apparently, so many degrees apart. But the mode of reckoning time as well as longitude differs in different countries, and a ship sailing from, say Hamburg, and another ship sailing on the same day from London, and meeting in the evening on the North Sea, would find a difference of fiftyfour minutes between their chronometers. Each would have "standard time "-one that of

33

England, the other that of Germany. Now, to understand what "standard" time ís, we must understand the general principles of timereckoning. The absolute noon at any place is the moment at which the sun reaches the highest point in the heavens, as viewed from that place, day after day. Thus, the only places which have the same absolute "noon" are those which are on the same meridian. It is noon at Valencia at the same moment as at London, but noon at London is twenty-two minutes earlier than at Penzance and seven minutes later than at Lowestoft. When railways were introduced, however, it was found impossible to regulate the hours of the arrival and departure of trains according to each "local" noon, and so it was arranged that "noon" at Greenwich (or the site of the Royal Observatory) should be reckoned as noon in all parts of Great Britain. But owing to the orbital motion of the earth, the absolute "noon," as shown by the position of the sun in the heavens, is not the same every day, being for six months of the year earlier than the average and for six months later. The average of all these variations during the year, however, is taken, and from this "mean noon" the twelve hours "before noon (ante meridiem), and the twelve hours "after noon (post meridiem), are calculated. By Greenwich mean time, thus fixed, all the clocks are regulated, instead of by the "local" absolute noon as shown by the sun. In the same way Paris mean time has been made the "standard" time in France, Berlin mean time in Germany, and so on. But while the inconveniences of an interminable succession of "local" noons have been so far removed in each country, the same inconveniences exist as between different countries. If a telegram is despatched from Berlin at "noon" (by German time), and takes thirty minutes in transmission, it reaches London at twenty-four minutes before noon (by Greenwich time). The Washington Conference agreed that, for astronomical purposes, "noon "" at Greenwich should be "noon" all the world over, and that, just as there is to be one universal "prime meridian for calculating longitude, so there shall be one "standard time reckoned from mean "noon" at that meridian. It further agreed that the day, instead of being divided into two portions of twelve hours each, should be divided into twenty-four hours, counting from midnight. Hitherto astronomers have divided the day into twenty-four hours beginning at noon; so that the astronomical day was only one hour old when the civil day had already completed one whole series of twelve hours and the first hour of the second series. While, therefore, astronomical time has now accommodated itself to civil time, by commencing its day at midnight, civil time will find it convenient to accommodate itself to astronomical time (1) by counting the twenty-four hours right through from midnight to midnight, instead of in two series of twelve hours each; and (2) by employing the one universal standard of Greenwich time for all purposes of international concern. For example, if a telegram is sent from London at 1 p.m., and reaches New York in an hour, the operator at New York, under the old system, marks "1 p.m." as the hour of despatch and "8.4 a.m." as the hour of receipt! In other words, the telegram, after being delayed an hour en route, appears to have reached its destination five hours before it was sent off.

Under the new system the hour of despatch would be marked as 13 o'clock, and the hour of receipt as 14 o'clock. But at 14 o'clock (by universal time) people in London are having lunch, while in New York they are only just having breakfast; surely, it will be urged, as much inconvenience will arise from the new as from the old system of time reckoning? No. While "universal" time will be used for international purposes, "local" time will still be used for local purposes; but a reform will be effected in the methods of fixing the local standards. As the earth is divided into 360 degrees and the day into twenty-four hours, it follows that every fifteen degrees represents the difference of an hour in time. If the earth be divided into twenty-four equal parts, longitudinally, at every fifteenth meridian, and if the "local" mean noon of each of such meridians be adopted as the "standard noon of all places 7 degrees each side of it, we shall have the following result:-When it is " noon at Greenwich and at all places within 7 degrees of Greenwich, it will be 11 o'clock by "local" standard (but still "noon" by universal) time for all places between 7 and 223 degrees west of Greenwich, and 13 o'clock by local"standard" (but still noon by universal) time for all places between 7 and 22 degrees east of Greenwich, and so on throughout the world. "Universal" time will be the same universally, and local time will differ from it only by even hours, instead of by the various odd minutes by which local standards differ from each other at the present time; while in no case will the difference beween "standard" noon and "absolute " noon at any place exceed half an hour. Messrs. Kendal and Dent, of 106, Cheapside, have produced a watch with two hour-hands, one black and the other gold, so contrived that one of them always represents "universal" time, while the other may be altered according to the numbers of hours difference between "local" and "universal" standards. Thus a traveller, wherever he may go, will always carry Greenwich time (as the universal time) with him, and keep local standard time simultaneously by simply putting one hand backwards or forwards an hour at a time as required, and without having to make intricate calculations as to the exact number of minutes' and seconds' difference between the standard times of different capitals as at present. University Extension. I. Cambridge Scheme. In 1872 the University of Cambridge, in response to many memorials from large towns, appointed a Syndicate to "organise lectures in popular places." The scheme grew rapidly, and the Syndicate has conducted lectures in more than sixty towns. The classes are very large and the fees are low-five shillings for a course of twelve lectures-and class teaching being about the average; and the lecturers are men of university standing, who give lectures of nearly the same character as they would deliver at the universities themselves. some cases these lectures have led to the foundation of permanent educational institutions. The most splendid instance is that of Nottingham, where in 1880 an anonymous donor gave 10,000, and the Town Council accepted

it,

In

condition. Similar results have followed on a less scale in Chesterfield, Liverpool, Sheffield, and elsewhere. II. London Scheme. Many university men resident in London saw their way to applying in and around the metropolis what had been thus so successfully carried out in the great towns of the north. Sir Thomas Gresham had intended in his famous bequest, dating from Elizabeth's reign (1579), to bring university teaching to the doors of the citizens of London, and intrusted funds to the Mercers' Company for that purpose. In 1878, some London residents secured the co-operation of the three universities of Cambridge, Oxford, and London, each university agreeing to nominate three distinguished persons as a "joint board,” and the joint board of nine undertaking to select lecturers, examiners, etc., and to advise generally. The chairman is Professor James Stuart, M.P. A society was formed for the management of the scheme, called the "London Society for the Extension of University Teaching," with the Right Hon. G. J. Goschen, M.P., as its president, and with a council of twentytwo elected members of very high educational distinction, to whom are joined ten delegates from the great London educational institutions, the Royal Institution, the London Institution, Bedford, King's, Queen's, University, and other colleges, etc. Any place in or near London may constitute itself a centre of this Society without any further membership or formality, and may apply for a lecturer on any of the recognised subjects, the council sharing part of the risk, and cordially co-operating in every way. The local expenses and hire of rooms fall entirely upon the local centre, and therefore in every case there is formed a local fund, or a guarantee to cover possible deficiencies. Twenty-six such centres are or have been at work, and the fees charged range from a shilling to a guinea for the course, though the teaching is of the same excellence in every case. In 1885, for instance, there were four courses In Whitechapel (fee one shilling), and the number of their students varied from 100 to 150 each. Of course this centre is a very poor one, and is largely aided by subscriptions and grants. The richer centres have higher fees, and are selfsupporting. The lectures are in courses of ten or twelve, are always accompanied with class teaching, and conclude with an examination (free) by some independent examiner. As a rule, 2,000 to 2,500 students are at work under the London scheme. The session (of two terms) covers a little more than the six months from October to March. The offices of the Parent Society are at 22, Albemarle Street, and the yearly subscription is £2 2s., entitling to admission to all lectures at all centres. University Matches. See BOAT RACE, CRICKET, FOOTBALL. Upholders, The Worshipful Company of. See CITY GUILDS, THE.

Uruguay. Capital, Monte Video. A republic under a president elected for four years. Legislature is composed of a Senate elected for six years by departments, and a Chamber elected for three years, one for each 3000 of population. In the recess a permanent committee of two senators and five deputies assume legislative power and control of general administration. State religion Roman Catholic, but all others tolerated. Education fairly good: about one in twenty of inhabitants attend school. Area 73,538 square miles. Population

on condition that an University College should be provided to the satisfaction of the University of Cambridge, as a permanent home for the Extension movement there. This has been done, and is now in a very flourishing