73. In the first of these uses, the collective noun is singular, and of the neuter gender; it would therefore require a singular verb, and a singular, neuter pronoun; "Your club beats ours every time it tries."

as,

74. In the second use, the gender of the noun is determined by the sex of the objects represented, and the verb and pronoun referring to it should be plural; as, "Your club have silver buckles on their caps." This is a very important distinction, and the student must thoroughly master it before he can speak with assurance.

75. When a collective noun is pluralized, it usually becomes a class noun of the neuter gender; as, "There were seven or eight swarms." Here the individuals are lost sight of. But a collective noun may be used in the plural number so as to refer to the individuals; as, "All day the regiments were calling on their commander."

76. An Abstract Noun is the name of any quality conceived of by the mind apart from the object to which it belongs; as, softness, drunkenness, honesty.

(a) The following are a few of our abstract nouns: death, hope, youth, goodness, happiness, beauty, sorrow, cold, whiteness, softness, darkness, motion, flight, silence, existence, height, depth, growth, custom, honor, economy, indolence, grandeur, honesty, deception, drunkenness, poverty, ambition, power.

(b) Most abstract nouns readily become concrete by being used to represent a thing having attributes; as, "She is a beauty," "Death comes to us all alike."

77. A Verbal Noun is the name of an action, being, or state; as, “The rushing of the waves." "Existing is less to be dreaded than death." "Sound sleep is very refreshing.”

"Sound sleep is

(a) All verbal nouns may be considered abstract.

78. Class Nouns are all those not included in the other

divisions; as, girl, man, house, knife.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

79. To nouns belong four properties: Person, Number, Gender, Case.

PERSON.

80. Person is that property of the noun which indicates whether it represents the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

81. Hence there are three persons: the First, which denotes the speaker; the Second, the person spoken to; and the Third, the person or thing spoken of.

82. Person in nouns is indicated by their use and not by a change in form. “I, Henry Anderson, am guilty.” Henry Anderson, you are a thief." "Henry Anderson stole the horse."

(a) The first and the second persons belong to names of persons only; or of things personified.

(b) Most nouns are of the third person.

(c) A noun of the first person is found in no other construction than that of apposition with a pronoun of the first person; and in the nominative absolute by subscription.

(d) A noun of the second person can have but two constructions: apposition with a pronoun of the second person, and nominative absolute by direct address.

NUMBER.

83. Number is that property used to show whether the noun represents one object or more than one.

84. There are two numbers: the Singular, denoting one, as box, child, star; and the Plural, denoting more than one, as boxes, children, stars.

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

85. Nouns form their plurals either by inflection or by a radical change

1. By Inflection.

86. General Rule. Most nouns form their plurals by suffixing s, or (where euphony demands it) es: book, books; pin, pins; church, churches; bench, benches.

87. The following classes of nouns generally add es for plural: -

(a) Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some nouns in o, preceded by a consonant: trench, trenches; miss, misses; blush, blushes; tax, taxes, topaz, topazes; motto, mottoes.

(b) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, add es after changing y into i glory, glories; story, stories; lady, ladies.

66

In Old English we find such words written glorie, storie, ladie, with s suffixed for the plurals. Hence, when we say, Change y into ie," we mean that ie has been changed into y.

(c) A few nouns ending in ƒ or fe form their plurals by adding es, after for fe has been changed into v: thief, thieves; wife, wives; life, lives; wolf, wolves.

2. By Radical Change.

88. A few nouns form their plurals by radical change; that is, by a modification of the vowel sound of the singular: man, men; woman, women; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice.

PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER.

89. Singular and Plural the Same.

(a) A few nouns have the same form for the plural as for the singular: sheep, deer, grouse, series, salmon, heathen.

(b) The number of such a noun must be determined from some other part of the sentence; thus, "The sheep was in the garden." "The sheep were in the garden." "I bought one sheep." "I bought five sheep.”

90. Double Plurals.

1. Some nouns have double plurals, one English and one foreign, or two English plurals,—each having a pecul iar signification:—

2. Another class of nouns from foreign languages have double plurals with the same meanings:

(a) Except in technical or scientific language the English plurals are

generally to be preferred.

91. Plurals only.

Some nouns are found only in the plural:

Another class of nouns have the plural form with the singular signification; as, means, molasses, news, odds, pains, riches, tidings, amends, gallows, thanks, etc.

Also, politics, ethics, optics, mathematics, physics, and some others represent Greek plurals, but are regarded as

singular. Thus, "Mathematics is (not are) the science of quantity"; "Ethics is (not are) the science of duty." 93. Singulars only.

Many abstract nouns have no plurals; as, decorum, harshness, meekness, prudence, tenacity, etc.

94. Plural of Proper Nouns.

Proper nouns generally form their plurals by adding s or es. But as to those ending in y, usage is unsettled; some good writers add s, others drop y and add ies; as, Mary, Marys or Maries; Story, Storys or Stories.

95. The Plurals of Letters, Marks, Figures, and Signs are formed by adding the apostrophe and s ('s); as, “You must dot your i's and cross your t's." "We prove addition by casting out the 9's." "At the bottom of the page were placed 's, -'s, +'s, and

's."

96. The Plural of Compound Words is generally formed by pluralizing that part of the word which is described by the rest; as, ox-carts, brothers-in-law, billet-doux, courtsmartial, aids-de-camp, cupfuls, wagon-loads, commanders-inchief.

A few compound words pluralize both parts: men-servants, knights-templars (or knights-templar).

97. Plural of Proper Names preceded by titles is formed by pluralizing either the name or the title, but never both. 98. Rules.

I. If the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the name is always pluralized: "The Mrs. Browns." "The two Mrs. Barlows." "The two Miss Scotts had been gathering flowers."- Irving.

II. The title should always be pluralized when it is Mister, Miss, Doctor, Professor, etc., not preceded by a numeral : "The Messrs. Johnson." "The Misses Dill." "The Drs. Bank."