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Gyltas, "debts," accusative plural, from gylt, "a debt.” - Swa swa, "so as," as before.

We, "we."

Forgifadh, "forgive," 1st pers. plur. pres. indic. from for gifan, "to forgive."

Urum, "our," in dative plural.

Gyltendum, "debtors," dative plural, from gyltend, “a debtor."-And, "and," as before.

Ne, "not," adverb of negation.

Gelæde, “lead," 2d pers. sing. imper. from gelædan, “to lead."-Thu, "thou," as before.

Us, "us," accusative of we, "we."

On, "into," here construed with an accusative.

Costnunge, "temptations," accusative plural, from costnung, "a temptation."

Ac, "but," conjunction.

Alys, "deliver thou," imper. from alysan, "to deliver."Us, "us," as before.

Of (whence English of), "from,” construed with the da

tive.

Yfle, "evil," dative sing. from yfel, "evil."

PART II.

THE PHONOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER I.

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS IN THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE.

MODE OF PRODUCTION.

$54. THE Sounds which constitute Language are formed by air issuing from the Lungs, modified in its passage through the throat and mouth by the Organs of Speech, at the will of the speaker.

PHONOLOGY is the Doctrine or Science of the elementary sounds uttered by the human voice in speech. The Phonology of the English Language is the doctrine of the elementary sounds in the Spoken language.

The tones of the human voice are produced by two Membranes, called the Vocal Ligaments. They are set in motion by a stream of air gushing from the lungs. The Windpipe is contracted near the mouth by a projecting mass of muscles, called the Glottis. The Edges of the glottis are membranes, and form the Vocal Ligaments. Ordinarily these membranous edges are inclined from each other, and, consequently, no vibrations take place during the passage of the breath; but, by the aid of certain muscles, we can place them parallel to each other, when they immediately Vibrate and produce a Tone. With the aid of other muscles we can increase their tension, and thereby the Sharpness of the tone; and, by driving the air more forcibly from the lungs, we may increase its loudness. The Tone thus formed is modified by the cavities of the throat, nose, and mouth. These modifications form the first Elements of Articulate Language. They are produced not by the lungs, or the windpipe, but by the

G

Glottis, the Palate, the Tongue, the Teeth, the Lips, which are called the ORGANS of Speech. As the Tongue is the principal organ in changing the cavities which modify the tone, it has given its Name to speech, both in the AngloSaxon and the Latin.

CLASSIFICATION.

55. In the Spoken Language, the Elementary Sounds are divided into two classes: 1. VOCALIC or VOWEL SOUNDS. 2. CONSONANTAL or CONSONANT SOUNDS.

1. VOCALIC SOUNDS are those which can be formed without bringing any parts of the mouth into contact, to interrupt the stream of air from the Lungs.

Thus the Sound of a or o can be pronounced with the mouth partially open, and with the breath in one uninterrupted stream. The word Vowel is from the Latin word Vocalis, Vocal; it means what can be sounded or form Voice by itself. Some ambiguity is connected with the use of the word, inasmuch as it not only denotes a Sound, but also the Letter which represents the sound.

2. It has been found that the note of a common organ may take the qualities of all the vowel sounds in succession. This is effected merely by lengthening the tube which confines the vibrations. It would seem, therefore, that the peculiar character of the different vowel sounds depends on the length of the cavity which modifies the voice. In pronouncing the a in father, the cavity seems barely, if at all, extended beyond the throat; in pronouncing the a in all, it reaches to the root of the tongue, and to the middle of the palate in pronouncing the long e in eat; the sound of the long o in oat requires the cavity to be extended to the lips, which must be stretched out to form a cavity long enough to pronounce the u in jute.

§ 56. CONSONANTAL SOUNDS are those which can not be formed without bringing the parts of the mouth into contact.

1. Thus the Sound indicated by the letter p or m can not be produced without bringing the lips into contact. Though the consonantal sounds can be isolated, that is, separated from the Vocalic, yet in practice they are joined to vocalic sounds and pronounced with them. For this reason this class of

sounds can be properly called Consonants, from the Latin word con, with, sonans, sounding.

2. An ARTICULATE SOUND, from articulus, a Latin word for joint, is properly one which is preceded or followed by the closing of the organs of speech, or bringing some of the parts of the mouth in contact. A Consonant is, in the strict sense, an Articulation, or an Articulate Sound. But, in use, the term is extended to Vowel Sounds. Vowel sounds are produced by the lower organs, and Consonantal sounds by the upper. Brute animals utter Vowel sounds. Man only can utter Consonantal sounds.

3. In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do with either letters or the names of letters, but to compare the sounds themselves. Instead of comparing the syllables which contain the consonants, in order to determine the relations of the consonants, as pa, ba, ta, da, we are often obliged to separate the consonant from its vowel, and bring our organs to utter, or half utter, the imperfect sounds of p', b', t', d. In doing this we isolate the consonant.

§ 57. Let any of the Vowels (for instance, the a in father) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts within your throat remain in the same position; and, as long as these remain in the same position, the sound is that of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the Vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the position has been changed. If on the Vowel in question the lips be closed, there arises an imperfect sound of b or p. If, on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the front part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) of t or d. This fact illustrates the difference between the Vowels and the Consonants. It may be verified by pronouncing the a in fate, ee, in feet, oo in book, o in note, &c.

It is a further condition in the formation of a Vowel sound that the passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of the l' in lo (isolated from the Vowel) the sound is contin

uous, as it is with the a in fate. Between, however, the Consonant and the Vowel a there is this difference: with a the passage of the breath is uninterrupted; with 7, the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the passage of the breath.

§ 58. If you take the sounds of p, f, t, k, s, &c., and isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them, the sound is that of a whisper. If you treat b, v, d, g, z, &c., in a similar way, the sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of the voice. The first class are called SURDS, the second class SONANTS. Instead of these, the terms Sharp and Flat have been used, or Aspirate and Vocal.

If the vocal ligaments be so inclined to each other as not to vibrate, the emission of breath from the lungs produces merely a whisper. This whisper may be modified in like manner as the voice, by similar arrangements of the organs. Every vocal sound has its correspondent whisper sound or aspirate.

§ 59. A part of the consonant sounds are CONTINUOUS, and a part are EXPLOSIVE. If you isolate the sounds of p, b, t, d, k, and g, you have no power to prolong the sounds or of resting on them. They escape with the breath at once. It is not so with f, v, sh, zh, s, l, m, n, r. Here the breath is transmitted by degrees, and the sound can be prolonged. The first class are explosive, the second continuous.

DR. RUSH'S CLASSIFICATION.

§ 60. I. TONIC SOUNDS. A-ll, a-rt, a-n, a-le, ou-r, i-sle, o-ld, ee-l, oo-ze, e-rr, e-nd, i-n. These twelve Tonic sounds have a vocality, as distinguished from a whisper or aspiration, and admit of indefinite prolongation. II. SUBTONIC SOUNDS. B-ow, d-are, g-ive, si-ng, l-ove, m-ay, n-ot, r-oe, have unmixed vocality; v-ile, z-one, y-e, w-o, th-en, a-z-ure, have aspiration. Some of the Subtonic vocalities are nasal; as, m, n, ng, b, d, g. III. ATONIC SOUNDS. U-p, ou-t, ar-k, i-f, ye-s, h-e, wh-eat, th-in, pu-sh. These nine have no vocality, but only a whisper or aspiration. In this classification of the Elementary Articulate sounds we have twelve tonic, fourteen subtonic, and nine atonic sounds; in all, thirty-five.

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