with prepositions: Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, touching. They can, however, still be treated as participles.

6. Save and except can be treated as verbs in the Imperative Mode. Nigh, near, next, opposite can be viewed as Prepositions in construction, or as Adjectives, the preposition to being sometimes understood. Along may be considered as a preposition in certain combinations; as, "He went along the river." But, when equivalent to except, has the force of a preposition.

There are also certain prepositional phrases; as, According to, in respect of; as, On account of the love=propter

amorem.

ORIGIN OF

CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS.

§ 327. ATHWART is from a and thwart, an adjective or a verb. Moved "contrary with thwart obliquities."-Milton. "Swift as a shooting star in autumn thwarts the night."Idem. The meaning of the word, here used as an adjective or verb, is seen in the preposition; as, "Moving athwart the sky.” ACROSS, in formation and meaning, is analogical with athwart.

AGAINST, from Anglo-Saxon gean, ongeon. It comes from the verb gan, to go.

AMONG, from Anglo-Saxon onmang, verb gemengan, to mingle.

ABOUT, Anglo-Saxon abutan. It seems to be related to the French word bout, the butt or limit of a thing.

BETWEEN=By twain, by twice. Sir Philip Sidney uses betweene as an adjective: "His authoritie having been abused by those great lords, who, in those betweene times of reigning, had brought in the worst kind of oligarchie." In the Old English we find the adverb atwayne: "With his axe he smote it atwayne."

BEYOND seems to be of the same origin as the preposition against, being from the verb gan, to go. It is equivalent to "that place being passed."

BENEATH by the nether, that is, lower part.

By, Anglo-Saxon be or big, Gothic bi, Swedish be, Dan

X

ish by. The word, in composition, is often written be; as, Because, besiege.

BEFORE, BEHIND, are of the same nature, in this respect, that fore and hind are to the nouns, in composition, with be. They are still used in an adjectival sense in foreman, hind wheel, &c. Afore and tofore were formerly used instead of before, and they are still used in the expressions aforesaid, heretofore.

FOR and fore appear to have been originally the same word. Our common words "wherefore" and "therefore" are equivalent to "for which" and "for this ;" and the latter is often written forthy in ancient authors, as the former is written for why by some of modern date:

"And forthy, if it happe in any wise

That here be any cover in this place."

CHAUCER'S Troilus.

"Solyman had three hundred field-pieces, that a camel might well carry one of them, being taken from the carriage; for why, Solyman, purposing to draw the emperor into battle, had brought no greater pieces of battery with him."Knolle's Hist. Turk.

Forsaid was used as foresaid, Forlok for forelook. For still has a meaning kindred to fore or before.

For is also used as a conjunction; as, "That ye may be the children of your Father who is in heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good." In such sentences for has the sense of because. It may be said, in general, that for indicates the cause or motive of any action or

circumstance.

IN, Latin in, Greek év, Gothic in, Anglo-Saxon in, French en, Spanish en, Italian in, German ein, Danish ind, Sanscrit antu. This relates to place and time, and can be coupled, in the way of opposition, to out. This last word is in Anglo-Saxon ut. Various compounds are formed from these; as, Within, without, or inwith, outwith, as written by some ancient writers. The words withouten and forouten were also formerly used.

THE NATURE

AND OFFICE OF PREPOSITIONS.

§ 328. 1. Prepositions, although a secondary and less important part of speech, deserve more attention than is usually paid to them in our common grammars. They exhibit in a striking manner the analogy of the external or sensible world with the internal or intellectual.

2. The preposition, (from Latin præpositio, "a placing before,") is a word placed before a noun. This is merely an external definition, and does not indicate its internal nature. 3. Prepositions express neither essences, (like substantives,) nor activities, (like verbs and adjectives,) but only their relaThey express not the substance, but the form of our Hence they are ranked by Becker with form-words. 4. Prepositions are indeclinable, as the relations of things are external to the things themselves, and are not affected by the changes which take place in them.

tions.

ideas.

5. Prepositions express relations between verbs whose original nature consists in activity or motion, or some other parts of speech involving the verbal idea, and a noun expressing an essence. Of course, with very few exceptions, they denote local relations, or other relations conceived of as local relations by the mind.

6. The relations expressed by prepositions are either external or internal to the human mind. The external relations are of a physical nature, and obvious to the senses. The internal relations belong to the province of the intellect. As these higher relations are subject to the same analysis as the sensible relations, and the mind supposes a close resemblance between the physical and intellectual worlds, so prepositions denoting the external relations are also employed to express the internal.

7. Physical relations are for the most part local. Activity is motion. Relations of activity are directions of motion. These local relations arrange themselves in antitheses, forming a beautiful system; as, In and out, the only absolute relation of space; Latin cis and trans; before and behind; above and below, relative relations of space; to and from, relations of direction; into and out of, a compound relation,

etc. This system is too little regarded in our common gram.

mars.

8. Intellectual relations are conceived of as physical, and are expressed by prepositions denoting physical relations. They are exhibited to others, as they strike our own minds This is shown,

(1) In cases where the primary or physical meaning of the verb is lost; as, To copy from a picture; to rule over a country.

(2) In cases where the physical meaning is not lost; as, To rely on another's promise; to tend to a given result; to insult over any one.

(3) In cases where the force of the preposition had been already expressed in the verb; as, To consult with a person; to abstain from a thing; to concur with another; antipathy against another.

9. Prepositions thus exhibit a wonderful correlation between the intellectual and physical worlds; a correlation which shows that both worlds proceeded from the same Author.

10. Prepositions exhibit the wonderful economy of language. The number of relations is almost infinite; yet they are all expressed by a comparatively small number of prepositions, and this without any confusion or danger of mis take. We are guided in the meaning by the nature of the ideas between which the relation exists; but if one local relation were used for another, confusion would immediately arise.

11. As the object of prepositions is the same with that of cases in nouns, hence, in those languages where there are no cases, there must be more prepositions; and vice versâ in those languages which have numerous cases, fewer preposi tions are necessary.

12. Whether the expression of relations by cases or by prepositions in the Indo-European languages is the more ancient, it is difficult to decide. With respect to the external and lower relations, it is natural to believe that prepositions were used from the first for their expression; but with respect to the internal spiritual relations the matter is not so

clear.

It would seem as if the language-makers had begun

by expressing the internal relations by inflection, and the external by prepositions, and that the contest between these two principles has been the occasion of the endless variety of existing languages.

CHAPTER XXVI.

CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 329. A CONJUNCTION is a word which can connect two propositions without making a part of either; as, "The sun shines and the sky is clear." "You admire him because he

is brave." See $407.

The word Conjunction is derived from the Latin con, with, and junctus, joined=joined together. The distinguishing characteristic of the Conjunction is, that it shows the relation of sentences or propositions; thus, "He sang and danced"" He sang and he danced." In each side of this equation there are really two propositions; the only difference between them is, that in one of them there is an ellipsis of the word he. A preposition connects words; a conjunction connects propositions. The same word is sometimes a Conjunction, and at other times a Preposition or an Adverb. See § 312. A current definition is, "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together."

§ 331. 1. According to the above scheme, Conjunctions are divided into two Classes, according as they connect the mean