Corn Laws. Extension of the protective policy. enacted at the time, that the period of shipbuilding and the growth of merchant shipping began. By section two of the preceding statute, the export of bullion, gold, silver coin, plate, etc., was prohibited. Protection to agriculture was also embraced within this policy. In 1453 the merchants of the Hanseatic League began to bring large quantities of wheat into the country. This interference with the agricultural interests by foreign competition was restricted by a statute' which prohibited the import of foreign-grown grain, when the price of wheat at the port of entry did not exceed six shillings and eight pence to the quarter. It was during this period, and especially under Richard II., that the system of bondage among the agriculturalists was abolished, and the rural population given the occupancy of land under leases and copyholds. This change connected with the system of protection to agriculture, which was inaugurated and subsequently enforced for centuries, with great vigor, built up that large body of yeomanry which added so much to the independence and strength of the English people. Though the outcry about the interference of foreigners in the great manufactures of the country had no immediate effect, serious efforts were made in the latter half of the fifteenth century, to encourage native industry, partly by prohibiting the importation of finished goods, and partly by encouraging the importation of materials. In 1455 a complaint was made on behalf of the silk women and spinners of the mistery and occupation of silk working in London, that the Lombards, with the intention of destroying the said mistery, were introducing ribbons and chains, falsely and deceitfully wrought, all manner of girdles and other things concerning the said mistery and occupation, in no manner-wise bringing in any good silk unwrought as they were wont to bring heretofore; and parliament entirely prohibited the importation of these goods under the penalty of forfeiture, together with a heavy fine. The reigns of the Yorkists were particularly distinguished for the eagerness with which this policy was pursued. Edward IV. passed similar measures with regard to silk in 1463 and 1483; but the former statute contained another clause of a far more sweeping character. It complains that owing to the import of wares "fully wrought and ready made to sale" the "artificers cannot live by their misteries and occupations as they have done in times past, but diverse of them as well householders as hirelings and other servants and apprentices, in great number be this day unoccupied and do hardly live, in great misery, poverty and need," and it proceeds to prohibit the introduction of a very miscellaneous assortment of finished goods. 2 It seems hardly credible that up to the close of the fifteenth century England was relying on the Continent for such a variety of articles of ordinary domestic use, as were excluded by this act. The following is a list of the articles prohibited to be imported by the act referred to by Professor Cunningham, passed in 1463, to-wit: Woolen caps, woolen cloth, laces, corses, ribbands, fringes of silk and thread, laces of thread, silk twined, silk in any wise embroidered, laces of gold, tyres of silk or gold, saddles, stirrups, or any harness pertaining to saddlery, spurs, bosses 1 3d, Edw. IV., c. 2. Growth of Eng. Ind., Vol. I., pp. 384-5. of bridles, andirons, gridirons, any manner of locks, pinsons, fire tongs, dripping pans, dice, tennis balls, points, purses, gloves, girdles, harness for girdles of iron, latten steel, tin or of alkemine, anything wrought of any tawed leather, any tawed furrs, buscans, shoes, galoches, or corks, knives, daggers, wood knives, bodkins, shear for tailors, scissors, razors, sheaves, playing cards, pins, pattens, pack needles or any painted ware, forcers, caskets, rings of copper, or of latten gilt, or chafing dishes, hanging candle-sticks, chafing balls, sacring bells, rings for curtains, ladles, skimmers, counterfeit basins, ewers, hats, brushes, cards for wool, blanch iron thread, commonly called white wire.1 Henry VII. whose administration is particularly distinguished for the attention given by him to the accumulation of capital and encouragement of industries in 1488, induced skilled laborers to come from the Continent and instruct his people. Another act was passed at this time which prohibited the export of wool and the export of white ashes was prohibited in order that a plentiful supply of material might be had for making and dressing wool.3 In 1552 a general act was passed for the regulation, control and encouragement of the woolen industries of the realm. Cunningham in speaking of the success of the protective policy at the time of Queen Mary at the close of the period in question, says: It was the means of giving special advantages to English merchants and of protecting English artisans. This definite political object was kept clearly in view with regard to direct and indirect taxation alike. In the very same year in which the general subsidy was voted which aliens paid at a double rate, the king was empowered to rearrange the whole scheme of rates and the subsequent manipulation of the new customs, was prejudicial to alien merchants, while the levying of impositions was favorable to the English artisans. The conditions under which aliens had to trade, were rendered so hard that as soon as the English shipping again revived under Elizabeth, they were driven out of the field; in the time of Edward III., they had done most of the trading of the country, but they had been gradually forced alike out of internal trade and foreign commerce.' At the close of this period, a revolution had been wrought in the industrial life of the English people. A people familiar with and adapted to agricultural pursuits alone, had been transformed into skilled mechanics. Artisans from the Continent had become instructors through inducements and special advantages offered by this policy. Busy centres of industry were growing up in localities which had thronged with tramps and beggars. The agricultural districts surrounding the towns and boroughs, where shops had been established, were finding a local market for farm produce, and receiving in exchange tools, implements and clothing. New fields were opened for the employment of labor, the development of talent, skill and the cultivation of enterprise and business ability. The English people were beginning now to supply themselves with the manufactured articles which prior to the adoption of this policy had come from the factories and workshops of Europe. C. 15. 1 Cunningham, Vol. I., p. 385. * Cunningham, Vol. I., p. 490. 24th, H. VII., C. II. 322d., H. VIII., c. 2d and 37th, H. VII., Effect of the protec tive policy. Guilds- guilds. Craft guilds. CHAPTER IV. RISE AND FALL OF TRADE GUILDS. As a part of the industrial life of the people of the free cities and boroughs, there grew up a combination of persons for mutual protection and benefits in trade. It is not necessary here to attempt to describe the ancient "peace guilds" or those organizations formed for religious and charitable purposes known as "religious guilds." In the Middle Ages the tradesmen of these cities formed associations known as "merchants' guilds." As the cities and boroughs grew in importance, and as tradesmen increased, the citizens of these municipalities combined to control the trade and industries, and later their power was extended to municipal affairs. Under their earlier charters, the merchant guilds secured the right of coinage, grants of fairs and exemption from tolls. They framed the regulations for the sale of goods, the location and control of markets, the collection of debts, of tolls and customs, the regulation of prices and quality of goods. Their participation in politics arose from their influence and numbers, rather than from any special chartered privileges. Merchant guilds continued until the close of the fourteenth century, when they were superseded in their influence, at least, by the "craft guilds." Craft guilds were a combination of artisans or craftsmen associated for the purpose of carrying on trades. A seven years' apprenticeship was required; minute rules and regulations were adopted, fixing hours of labor, wages and quality of goods. The body was governed by a board of overseers or wardens, selected from their number, who inspected work, enforced ordinances, collected fines and expelled members. An expelled member lost his right to pursue his occupation in a city or borough under the jurisdiction of the guild. A common fund for charit|able and other purposes was created. A long struggle continued between the craft and merchant guilds, arising over the objection raised by the merchant guilds, to the granting of charters to their rivals. The struggle was ended in the fourteenth century when Edward III. granted royal charters to the crafts. After a time merchant guilds were practically supplanted, lost their popularity and influence, and the craftsmen came into favor. All members of guilds were made freemen, a serf who had left his manor and enrolled himself as a member of a guild in some town or borough, gained freedom after remaining a year and a day. The growth of these organizations so extended that all craftsmen and traders were brought within their jurisdiction and governed by their ordinances. and regulations, excepting, however, those alien artisans who by special favor of the monarch were exempt from their control. When they became fully organized, three classes of members existed, to wit, masters, journeymen and apprentices. The master was a property owner and householder, was skilled in the business, employed journeymen and instructed apprentices, taking them into his service to teach them the mysteries of a trade. The journeyman was one who had served his time as an apprentice and remained in the employ of his former or some other master. The apprentice was bound to a seven years' service by an indenture entered into with his master. The guilds were fully organized throughout Europe, long before they had gained a foothold in England. Introduced into England by the artisan immigrants from the Continent, they were of slow growth, and it was not until the fourteenth century that they became numerous. From the time of Edward III. until the middle of the sixteenth century, a period of two hundred years, the industrial life of England had its beginning, expanded and became of great importance. In the early life of these organizations the welfare of the public was constantly kept in view. Goods were inspected by experienced overseers to secure excellence of quality and designs. Great care was taken in the instruction of apprentices. The utmost fairness was accorded to all members in the fixing of wages, hours of work and distribution of profits. While craft guilds existed in isolated localities, among small bodies of artisans who had come from the Continent soon after the Norman Conquest, they were not given royal charters and did not become clothed with legal jurisdiction and authority, and their importance was not appreciated, until that revival of industrial activity which followed and accompanied the policy of protection to native industries during the two centuries between Edward II. and Elizabeth. The adoption of protection in the fourteenth century occurred at a time when the country was being overrun by foreigners and foreign wares. The excessive competition waged by aliens, together with a lack of capital and skill, retarded the growth of industries. From the lack of custom houses and means of enforcing revenue laws, smuggling was extensively carried on. Foreign wares were brought into the country in foreign ships, and the benefits of the new policy were lessened, and the guilds were harassed and injured by this illicit trade which necessarily made the growth of industries much slower than it otherwise would have been. As nurseries of the arts and mysteries of the trades, as schools of technical learning, they rendered a service incalculably great. Existing at a time when industrial changes were going on, they supplied employment and formed the basis of the industrial skill and enterprise of the English people. This was a period of great economic changes, displacement of labor and great oppression of the people through the exactions of monarchs, Need of protection for the guilds. establish ments inde pendent of the guilds. Industrial especially during the time of Henry VIII., when a system of confiscation of property was carried on by the suppression of the monasteries and the seizure of their estates. The charters held by the guilds were granted at a time when but few trades existed and little manufacturing was done. Their jurisdiction was limited to the specific locality named in the charter of each particular organization. As manufacturing increased, new industries were established in suburbs and manorial villages, by journeymen who had failed to find constant employment with the guilds or who desired to become master workmen, and to engage in business on their own account. Employment was given to the journeymen, and apprentices were taken to service. The shops thus set up were continued without charters, but under rules and customs similar to those practiced by the guilds. They did not, however, have legal jurisdiction to impose fines or to enforce regulations, but were controlled more by common consent. During the latter part of the fifteenth and the early part of the sixteenth century, there were two systems of production operating side by side, but in different localities in the same country; the one being the craft guilds which had now reached their full vigor and began to show evidence of decay; the other, those establishments started by persons outside of the jurisdiction of the guilds. These establishments were the beginning of individual or capitalistic production, which superseded the guilds, in the latter part of the sixteenth century and continued for two hundred years, until the introduction of the factory system. Abuse of the guild system. Guilds were first organized and conducted on the basis of fellowship and community of interest; the good of the public; the common benefit and welfare of apprentices and journeymen and masters were equitably considered and justly measured without complaint. Duties were discharged toward each other and toward the public with a spirit of piety, and in some instances with a religious enthusiasm. A portion of the funds was contributed to the church for masses and religious observances. In the course of time a surplus of journeymen arose. The free tenants who had drifted into the boroughs and towns in search of employment for themselves and their children, were compelled to seek admission to the guild. The system of clearings, by which a large portion of the agricultural population was driven into the towns, increased the competition for apprenticeships. The guilds came to hold a monopoly of the industries of the country and the employment of the people in trades. Their rules and regulations must be complied with or it was impossible for a journeyman to set himself up in business or find employment. Under these circumstances only could a person find service as an apprentice. By petty ordinances and arbitrary exactions, the wardens and overseers in their efforts to perpetuate their absolute control, created dissatisfaction which caused complaints, not only among trades people outside of the guilds, but among those journeymen who had suffered from their arbitrary |