The privileges thus extended were limited to a term of years, and finally were confined almost wholly to the granting of letters patent. advance at of the century. The latter part of the eighteenth century was a period of industrial im- | Industrial provement and invention which revolutionized the industries of the country the close and placed England far in advance of every country in the world. The eighteenth most important improvement being the invention of machinery for the production of textile fabrics. Up to this time the making of woolen cloths constituted the chief industry of the country. The expansion of this industry during the eighteenth century was most marvelous. At the close of the seventeenth century the value of the wool clip was $10,000,000 from 12,000,000 sheep, and the cloth manufactured was worth $30,000,000 or $40,000,000. Nearly a half century later, in 1741, the number of sheep in the country was 17,000,000. By 1774 the value of the woolen manufactures had reached $65,000,000.1 At this time but little cotton was manufactured. The calicoes and prints were brought from Asia. It was through the invention of machinery that the cotton industry sprang suddenly into existence, and in the early part of the nineteenth century became the chief source of England's power in foreign trade and enabled her to become the greatest cotton manufacturing country in the world. In 1760 James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which came into use ten years later. At first, by this machine eight threads could be spun as easily as one could by the old process. It was soon brought to such perfection that a girl could tend from eighty to one hundred and twenty-eight spindles. This machine was sup- Improveplemented in 1771 by the spinning frame patented by Sir Richard cotton Arkwright. By this machine the spinning of fine thread was made postures. sible. The mule jenny was invented by Crompton in 1779, and the power loom by Cartwright in 1775. In 1769 James Watt had discovered the means of utilizing the power of steam, and invented the steam engine. In 1769 it was first used in pumping water from coal mines, and later applied as a power for running machinery. There was just one invention left to be made to perfect the processes of producing cotton cloth with great rapidity, and at so small a cost that it could be placed within the reach of everybody. This invention was reserved for an American. In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, by which the wool could be separated from the seed at a merely nominal cost. During the eighteenth century England had developed her coal mines, and hence was provided in advance of all other countries with the means by which she could excel in cotton manufacturing. The rapidity with which this industry grew after these inventions is one of the industrial marvels of the world. The importation of raw cotton increased from 9,000,000 pounds in 1783 to 18,000,000 in 1785, and had reached 60,000,ooo pounds by 1802. 1 Industrial History of England, p. 135. ment in manufac Exportation of prohibited. The English manufacturers were not content with the advantage sc suddenly thrust upon them, and immediately applied to parliament to prevent by legislation, if possible, other countries from using their new inventions The machinery of Arkwright and Hargreaves impressed upon parliament the importance of cotton manufacturing and the advantages which might be derived from it. Steps were immediately taken, in the year 1774, to prevent the exportation of machinery. The act' was entitled, an "Act to prevent the exportation to foreign parts of utensils made use of in the cotton, linen, woolen and silk manufactures of this kingdom." The preamble recites: Whereas, the exportation of the several tools or utensils made use of in preparing, working up, and finishing the cotton and linen manufactures of this kingdom or any or either of them, or any other goods wherein cotton or linen or either of them are used, will enable foreigners to work up such manufactures, and greatly diminish the exportation from this kingdom; therefore for preserving as much as possible to his Majesty's British subjects the benefits arising from these great and valuable branches of trade and commerce, it is enacted, etc. "Stringent provisions are then made against the putting on board of any ship, vessel or boat which shall not be bound to some port or place in Great Britain or Ireland," of any such tools or utensils as are commonly used or proper for the preparation, working up, or finishing of the cotton or linen manufacture, under penalty of forfeiture of such tools, etc., and a fine of two hundred pounds. Similar penalties are imposed for having in possession, with intent to export the same out of the kingdom, any tools or implements used in the woolen or silk manufacture. 3 The provisions of this statute, says John L. Hayes,' were either not. sufficiently stringent, or the rapidly increasing importance of the manufactures demanded a more rigid restriction; for in the year 1781 another statute was enacted explaining and amending the former act, and prohibiting the exportation of "any machine, engine, tools, press, paper, utensil or implement whatever, which now is, or may at any time be used in, or proper for preparing, working, pressing, finishing, or completing of the linen, cotton, wool or silk manufactures of this kingdom, or any other goods wherein wool, cotton or silk is used, or any part of such machine, etc., or any model or plan of any such machine." To the forfeiture of the machine, etc., and fine of two hundred pounds as in the previous statute, is added imprisonment for the space of twelve months. In the year 1825, upon a general revision of the custom laws, the above statutes were repealed, but in the new act for the regulation of the customs which was thereupon passed it was provided that certain articles should be absolutely "prohibited to be exported." Among those mentioned are, 1 14th, George III., c. 71. 2 American Textile Machinery, pp. 8–9. 3 21st, George III., c. 37 46th, George IV. any machine, engine, tool, press, paper, utensil or instrument used in or proper for the preparing, working, pressing or finishing of the woolen, cotton, linen or silk manufactures of the kingdom, or any other goods wherein wool, cotton or silk is used, or any part of such machine, etc., or any model or plan thereof (except wool cards and spinners' cards not worth above 4s. and 1s. 6d. per pair respectively). To this list was added utensils used in cotton printing. It will be seen that in the list of articles prohibited, the precise language of the statute of 1781-2 is retained. A revision of the customs tariff was made again in 1833 and in the table of prohibitions of exportations the same list occurs. This prohibition remained in force, it would seem, for twelve years, although it may have been less rigidly enforced or the means of evasion were greater with the increased facilities of intercourse with England than at an early period." The Act of 1833 was not repealed until 1845 about the time England changed her policy and adopted free trade. 1 A duty on the importation of manufactures of cotton amounting to forty-four per cent was imposed by the general tariff law of 1787 and increased to fifty per cent in 1819. It was repealed, however, in 1846. The iron industry is one of the oldest in England. It received its great impetus in 1740, when the process of smelting began to be carried on by the use of pit coal instead of charcoal. In 1740 the quantity of pig iron was 17,000 tons, made from fifty-nine furnaces; in 1788, 68,000 tons, from eighty-five furnaces; in 1796, 125,000 tons from one hundred and twenty-one furnaces, and in 1806, 250,000 tons from one hundred and sixty-nine furnaces. The discoveries made by Josiah Wedgwood in 1760, gave to the English people a superiority in the manufacture of pottery, which had not hitherto existed. The rapid growth of this industry, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, added immeasurably to the industrial power of the country. Iron industries. General summary teenth cen period of economic The eighteenth century was a period of systematic development and intrenchment of the English people in every branch of production, trade and commerce. The marvelous growth of foreign trade and ship-tury a ping; the perfection and improvement in manufacturing and the great fisheries; the establishment of colonies and the acquisition of foreign advance. possessions, all combined to make the eighteenth century the most important, in some respects, in the commercial history of the country. Space will not admit of a detailed analysis of all of these phases of production and sources of wealth. Besides, this was a great period of public enterprises. The improvement in highways; the building of bridges and the making of turnpike roads, together with the construction of canals, provided means of communication and transportation throughout all parts of the kingdom. Rivers and harbors were improved; light-houses 1 3d and 4th, W. IV., c. 52. 2 Textile Machinery, John L. Hayes, pp. 7-8. Evidence of economic prosperity. Condition of the working classes. were built, and in fact every means which was known to the English people, or which could be devised, was resorted to for the development of the country and the encouragement of trade. John Wade, in his history of "Middle and Working Classes of England," during the reign of George II., (1727 to 1760,) says: Of the thirty-three years of this king's government, only thirteen were years of war; the remainder of peace, prosperity and great internal improvements. Shipping increased, agriculture, commerce and the manufacturing arts flourished. Under numerous enclosure acts the waste lands were reclaimed; new roads were opened and old ones improved; bridges were erected, and numerous rivers widened and deepened, for facilitating internal communication; vast quantities of corn were annually exported. The balance of payments in return for the excess of exports, in grain and other commodities kept up the circulation almost without the aid of a paper currency; commercial interest ran steadily at three per cent. The prices of the public securities rose above par, so that ministers were enabled to reduce annuities by offering the usual alternative to the creditors of either the payment of the principal or the acceptance of a lower rate of interest. The activity of national industry and abundance of capital are evidenced by the extent of local improvements, especially in London and Edinburgh. In London no fewer than eight new parishes were erected between the Revolution and the end of the reign of George II. An act had passed in Queen Anne's reign for the building of fifty additional churches in the metropolis. The extension of commerce and manufactures caused a great addition to the population in the chief seats of industry and enterprise in the country,-in Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Glasgow, Leeds, Sheffield, Frome. The growth of population was very great. Prior to 1751 it had not increased over 3 per cent during any period of ten years, but from 1751 to 1781 the increase in each ten year period was 6 per cent. Between 1781 and 1791, the increase was 9 per cent, and 1791 and 1801, 11 per cent, and 14 per cent between 1801 and 1811, and 21 per cent between 1811 and 1818. In 1760 the population was 8,000,000, and it had reached 12,000,000 in 1819. The demand for labor which had been occasioned by the development of the vast system of diversified industries, then carried on in all parts of the country, had brought about an increase in wages and such a general improvement in the condition of the laboring classes that this period is universally referred to by the historians of the time as one of great satisfaction and encouragement in this respect. The vast factory system had not been introduced, every village, and in fact the rural districts were filled with those small shops and factories in which various branches of manufacturing were carried on. Daniel De Foe in his "Tour Through Great Britain," in giving an account of his observations of the condition of the people, near Halifax, in Yorkshire, between 1724 and 1726, says: The land was divided into small enclosures from two acres to six or seven each, seldom more, every three or four pieces of land having a house belonging to them; hardly a house standing out of speaking distance from another. We could see at every house a tenter, and on almost every tenter a piece of cloth or kersie or shalloon. At every considerable house there was a manufactory. Every clothier keeps one horse at least to carry his manufactures to the market; and every one generally keeps a cow or two or more for his family. By this means the small pieces of enclosed land about each house are occupied, for they scarce sow corn enough to feed their poultry. The houses are full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-vat, some at the looms, others dressing the cloths; the women and children carding or spinning; being all employed from the youngest to the oldest. De Foe further adds, "Not a beggar to be seen or an idle person." The improvement in agriculture; the ease and comfort enjoyed by the people during this century, present a striking contrast to the conditions which prevailed in the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, before the fostering care of protective legislation became the settled national policy. As the artisans, manufacturing, commercial and professional classes increased, the home market for the produce of the farm expanded. It was the vast increase of the home market, occasioned by the growth of population, incomes and wealth of the people of England, which so immeasurably improved the condition of the agriculturist. Mr. Gibbins says of the condition of the rural population in the latter part of the eighteenth century: Nor was that convenient plenty which was the lot of the manufacturing portion Condition of rural of the people, confined only to that section. The condition of the agricultural population. laborer, who was generally the worst off of all classes, from being so much under the direct supervision of his master, had considerably improved together with the general improvement of agriculture spoken of in a previous chapter. The price of corn had fallen, while wages had risen, though these were less than an artisan's, being, according to Arthur Young's average estimate for the North and Midland counties, about 75. a week. But it was generally 8s. or 10s., while the board of a working man may be placed at about 5s. or 6s. a week. Cottages were occasionally rent free, or at any rate only paid a low rent, never more than 50s. or 60s. per year. There was an abundance of food, clothing and furniture. Wheat bread had entirely superseded rye bread. Every poor family now drank tea, which had formerly been a costly luxury. "The consumption of meat was,'' says Arthur Young, "pretty considerable, " and that of cheese "immense." Indeed, he states that the laborers, "by their large wages, and the cheapness of all necessaries enjoyed better dwellings, diet and apparel in England than the husbandmen or farmers did in other countries.1 John Wade, in his history above quoted from, speaks of the agricultural improvements as follows: In 1710 the winnowing machine was introduced from Holland, and also about the same time the thrashing machine began to be used in the northern parts of the island. In 1732 the celebrated Jethro Tull commenced his experiments on his farm in Berkshire, but thirty years elapsed before they excited much practical attention, and before the more valuable parts of his system began to be adopted by intelligent agriculturists. He introduced the drill-husbandry and recommended the substitution of labor and arrangement in the place of manure and fallow in the culture of land. A rotation of crops and the cultivation of turnips, clover and potatoes in 1 Industrial History of England, pp. 149-50. Improve ment in agricul ture. |