three evolutions: a. the outline, Ex. xx.-xxiii.; b. the distinct form of the three books; and also the just modification of relations between the first and second tables of the law acccording to the Epistle of Barnabas. 3. According to the interpretation of the letter of the law by prophetic inspiration in Deuteronomy as an introduction to the New Testament law of the Spirit.

Literature.-LANGE, Mosaisches Licht und Recht; D. MICHAELIS, Das Mosaische Recht; BERTHEAU, Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze; general title, Zur Geschichte der Israeliten, Göttingen, 1840; BLUHME, Collatio legum Romanorum et Mosaicarum, 1843; SAALSCHUETZ, Das mosaische Recht, Berlin, 1846; RIEHM, Die Gesetzgebung im Lande Moab, Gotha, 1854; GEORGE, Die älteren jüdischen Feste mit einer Kritik der Gesetzgebung des Pentateuch, Berlin, 1835; J. SCHNELL, Das israelische Recht in seinen Grundzügen, Basel, 1855; ROBERT KUEBEL, Das alttestamentliche Gesetz und seine Urkunde, Stuttgart, 1867; FRANZ EBERHARD KUEBEL, Die soziale und volksthümliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testaments, Wiesbaden, 1870; MAYER, Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener und Römer, mit Rücksicht auf die neueren Gesetzgebungen, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1866.

15. THE TYPOLOGY OF THE WRITINGS OF MOSES.

On the types and symbols of Scripture, see this Commentary on Revelation, Introd., and Genesis, Introd. As this subject must be treated when we come to consider the Mosaic ritual in Leviticus, we refer to that. For the works on the types, see DANZ, p. 971.. On the brazen serpent, see this Comm., John iii. 14, 15. HILLER'S work, Neues System aller Vorbilder Jesu Christi durch das ganze Alte Testament und die Vorbilder der Kirche des Neuen Testaments in Alten Testament, was reissued in a new edition by ALBERT KNAPP, Ludwigsburg, 1857-8. It was written carefully and with a devout spirit, but defends some mistaken views, e. g. that the scape-goat signified Christ's new life; that the blood of the sacrifices was burnt, and the significance of the red heifer is overstrained.

B. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION

TO THE THREE BOOKS.

1. EXODUS.-The first query, not only of this book, but of the whole trilogy of legislation, as indeed of all the historical books of Holy Scripture, is the right determination of the connection between the facts and their symbolic meaning. The symbolism of the books of legislation by Moses must be distinguished from the general significance of symbolism in all religious history. If Moses was the great instructor directing men to Christ, it follows that his legislation must also be pre-eminently symbolic; for instruction has two sides-legislative and symbolic. Hence, above all things, we must distinguish between the mere legal force of the laws of Moses, and their symbolic significance; and as respects the latter, between a wider and a contracted symbolism, the first of which is divided into allegorical, symbolical and typical figures.

EGYPT.

The history of Egypt has an especial charm, because Egypt was the earliest home of culture in the old world, and because of its relation to the origin of the people of Israel, and to the history of the kingdom of God. See the article on Egypt in WINER's Bibl. Wörter

buch, and those of LEPSIUS on Ancient Egypt, and of W. HOFFMANN on Modern Egypt, in HERZOG'S Real-Encyklopädie. In the last article there is a list of the later works of travels in Egypt. There is also a full catalogue of the literature of the subject in BROCKHAUS' smaller Conversationslexicon, p. 68. The article in SCHENKEL'S Bibellexicon has specially treated Egypt's place in Old Testament prophecy. Every comprehensive history of the world, in treating the history of antiquity, must especially treat of Egypt. HEGEL, in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History, has enlarged on the history of Egypt ( Werke, Vol. IX. p. 205); and on the religion of Egypt under the title "Die Religion des Räthsels," in his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (Werke, Vol. XI. p. 343). It would be a superfluous comment if, in a history of occidental philosophy, Egyptian mythology were spoken of as dualistic, since no mythology has been found which had not a dualistic basis; and this comment would be altogether erroneous if we should regard the worship of the dead and of graves as an exotic growth imported into Egypt (KNOETEL, Cheops). We have regarded the Egyptian mythology as occupying a middle position between the Phoenician mourning for the dead and the Grecian apotheosis of men. BUNSEN's work, Egypt's Place in History, has largely served to spread the knowledge of Egyptology. See also GFROERER, Die Urgeschichte des Menschengeschlechts, Schaffhausen, 1855. BRUGSCH, Reiseberichte aus Egypten, Leipzig, 1855. UHLEMANN, Israeliten und Hyksos, Leipzig, 1856. G. EBERS, Egypten und die Bücher Moses', Leipzig, 1868. G. EBERS, Durch Gosen zum Sinai, Leipzig, 1872.

HISTORY OF ISRAEL.

This history in the literature of the present day is obscured in a twofold manner. First, by separating the religion of Moses from the promises to the patriarchs. But Moses, without the religion of Abraham, cannot be understood (Rom. iv.; Gal. iii.). If the patriarchs are remitted to the region of myths, Moses is made a caricature, a mere national lawgiver, and nothing but a lawgiver, like Solon, Lycurgus, and others. On this theme, which, without further notice, we entrust to the theology of the future, frivolous correctors of the history of Israel's ancient religion may expend their thought at their pleasure. Secondly, this history is greatly disparaged by a severely literal interpretation of the narrative in entire disregard of its historical and symbolic character. This severely literal interpretation is only a detriment to orthodoxy, because it serves negative criticism as a pretext for invalidating the sacred history. Bishop COLENSO came to doubt the historical truth of the books of Moses by the candid doubt expressed by one of his converts, who was assisting him in translating the Bible. His first step was honest and honorable-he would not be a party to deception in the exercise of his office. He sought counsel and help from his theological friends in England-and received none. The German theological works which he ordered gave him no

help. And so he gradually passed from a noble unrest of candor to the tumult of skepticism. He passed the line which runs between a discreet continuance within a religious community that cannot reduce its treasure of truth to the capacity of a special period or of a single individual, that is, between the continuance and quiet investigation of a pastor, a bishop, and the tumble of an impatient spirit, which, after the first break with servility to the letter, finds no rest in doubt. Yet, with all this, Bishop COLENSO bears a very favorable comparison with those novices who think they have reached the peak of critical illumination while they really fall into the dense darkness of boundless negation.

As regards later criticism, we refer to the distinction previously made between originals or records and the final compilations which were also under the guidance of the prophetic spirit. Joseph and Moses, the mediators between Egyptian culture and theocratic tradition, are said to have written little or nothing. It is a similar supposition to the one that the Apostle John never before his old age recalled the discourses of Jesus, nor ever used records.

Theological criticism, like classical philology, should above all things free itself from the mere idea of book-making, from all plagiarism and literary patch-work, and estimate the books of Scripture in their totality, as well as make itself familiar with the idea of a synthetic inspiration, one of the canons of which is, if the idea of the book is inspired, and

the book itself appears in divine-human harmony as a literary organism, the whole book is inspired. For the literature, see the bibliography, p. 49.

MOSES.

As in the life of Christ we must assume that there was no motion of Deity in Him without a corresponding motion of His ideal humanity, so we must assume with respect to Moses, though most persons rend asunder his mysterious personality; some by making him merely the servant of an absolutely supernatural divine revelation of law; others by making him only a human lawgiver of great political sagacity, or of great incompetence. For this reason it is the more necessary to assert with respect to Moses the synthesis of the divine-human life. In this regard we must ascribe to him a deep sympathy with nature. Who among the men of antiquity was more sensitive to the life of nature-its signs and omens? Who had such clear vision of the harmonia præstabilita between the course of nature and the course of the kingdom of God? As to the moral law, he was as firm and unyielding as the mount of revelation, Sinai itself. That he should not enter Canaan, the object of his hope, because in impatience he had struck the rock twice, is not only God's decree concerning him, but also an expression of his heroic conscientiousness, the last subtle, tragical motive of his lofty, consecrated life, a life which had been full of tragical motives, and whose crown, according to the Epistle to the Hebrews, was a resolute self-denial, illumined by a steadfast trust in the great reward. It was pre-eminently in this that Moses was a type of the coming Christ.

MOSES AND IMMORTALITY.

This Moses, who, in the effulgence of the promise, passed from Mt. Nebo to the other world, is said to have been ignorant of immortality, and his people are said to have remained ignorant of it until in the Babylonian captivity they came in contact with the Persians. This is LESSING's view in his Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts. With respect to this fact, "God winked at the times of this ignorance," Acts xvii. 30. The Jews came out of Egypt, the land of the worship of the dead, where the doctrine of another world, a fancied immortality, was taught, and yet they are said to have been ignorant of immortality. What this derivation of Moses and his people availed is shown by the fact that even heathenism held a defective doctrine of the other world; and this reappears in the medieval teaching and in the worship of the dead by the Trappists. It was all-important that Moses should guard against Egyptian heathenism, and make the sacredness of laws for this world, the revelation of Jehovah, of His blessing and His curse in the present, fundamental articles of faith. Besides, Moses wrote of the tree of life, of Enoch, of Sheol, of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, of the antithesis of prophecy in Israel to consultation of the dead, and of the restoration of a repentant people from waste places of the world. In this matter we must distinguish between the metaphysical or ontological idea of immortality and the ethical idea of eternal life, and then mark that the ethical idea is the main point for theocratic faith, but it always presupposes the metaphysical idea of immortality. In the ethical view the sinner is subject to death, the immeasurable sojourn in Sheol, because, in the metaphysical idea, his continued existence is immeasurable. If this distinction is not made and maintained, confusion is sure to arise, as in the work of H. SCHULTZ, Die Voraussetzungen der christlichen Lehre von der Unsterblichkeit.

LATEST WORKS ON SINAI.

See Die neue evangel. Kirchenzeitung, Dec. 28, 1872, “Die neuesten Forschungen über die Lage des biblischen Sinai." PALMER, in his work, The Desert of the Exodus, has decided against Serbal (LEPSIUS, BARTLETT, HERZOG) and for Sinai. So also the work of the British Ordnance Survey. The London Athenæum has said that the question is decided. Yet Professor EBERS, in his work, Durch Gosen zum Sinai, maintains the hypothesis of Serbal. RITTER and EWALD maintain that it is not yet decided. RITTER remarks: "Since the fifth century there have been two opposite views-the Egyptian, which is for Serbal; and the Byzantine, for the present Sinai."

THE LAW.

Since it is certain that the ethical law of the decalogue is identical with the law of the conscience (Rom. ii. 14)—and it is also certain that the decalogue logically requires the law of worship and sacrifice, as well as the law for the king, for the state, and for war-it follows that these last two legislations are symbols and types of the imperishable norms of man's inner life, of the individual spirit as well as of the spiritual life of mankind. In the New Testament the whole law of sacrifice is converted into spiritual ideas, and Christians are represented as the spiritual host of their royal leader, Christ, or as the soldiers of God who, through warfare with the kingdom of darkness, shall gain the inheritance of glory (Eph. vi 11 f.).

The law was always two-fold. On the one side it must develope as the law of the Spirit; on the other side, as a law of the letter, it could become a law of death-that is, in this apparent contrast between its spirit and external form it must reveal itself. The solution of this contrast is brought about by catastrophes which, on the worldly side, appear as the consummation of tragedy; on the divine side, as the consummation of the priesthood.

The law as the principle of life is one, the law of love, of personality; the law as the principle of society is two-fold, the law of love of God and love of man, the harmony of worship and culture. The law as the statute of the kingdom is three-fold-prophetical, sacerdotal, royal. The law as the statute of the kingdom is given under ten heads, the number of the complete course of the world, and from this basis spring its multiplied ramifications, the symbolism of all doctrines of faith and life, a tree of knowledge and a tree of life; ramifications which Jewish theology of the letter has attempted to number exactly.

Jehovah's law is in exact correspondence, not only with the natural law of morals, but also with the moral law of nature; and it is a one-sided view to regard these legal precepts as either only abstract religious statutes, or as mere laws of health and of common weal, with a religious purpose. In this respect there has been great confusion, as, for example, in HENGSTENBERG's works.

The development of the legislation was in accordance with the need for it a fact which must not be overlooked. The hierarchical law of worship is required because the people were afraid to enter into immediate communion with Jehovah (Ex. xx.). After the people's fall into idolatry, the law of the new tables is illustrated in two ways, by mildness and by severity, by the announcement of Jehovah's grace, and by punishment. As the priests were called to maintain the warfare of Israel within the people, so the army of God was called to carry the law of God into the world as a priesthood ad extra. The unfolding of the spiritual character of the law was provided for in Deuteronomy.

According to John vi., Acts xv., and Jewish theology, the basis of Mosaic legislation was a still more ancient law-1, the so-called Noachic patriarchal law; 2, the Abrahamic patriarchal law of faith.

The so-called commands of Noah are a tradition connected with the general principle of monotheism, which forbids idolatry, and with the fundamental law of humanity, which forbids murder.

The first law of the Abrahamic covenant is circumcision, which, as a type of regeneration, signifies the consecration of the family to regeneration (Gen. xvii.), and in Exodus this law is renewed by means of a striking fact (Ex. iv. 24). In patriarchal faith it was the sacrament of consecration. It contains the germ of the monotheistic law of marriage. By Abraham's great sacrifice, commanded and directed by Jehovah, Gen. xxii., the traditional and corrupt ancient religious sacrifices were changed to a hallowed custom, and this takes the form of law in the institution of the Passover, the sacred celebration of the covenant with the house of Israel. The Passover is not only the central norm of all forms of sacrifice, but it is also the basis of legislation; for on it depend the ethical laws of the worship of God, of the hallowing of His name, of the consecration of the house, of festivals, and of religious education, of the consecration of the first-born and of the Levites, and lastly the civil law, by the regulation of the festivals and of the principal offices of the theocratic state.

The three phases of religion, its prophetic, sacerdotal, and voluntary or kingly character, appear under peculiar forms in the sphere of law. Prophecy becomes command, resignation becomes sacrifice, exaltation to royal freedom from the world and in communion with God is the entrance into the army of Jehovah. It has been remarked above that these three phases are logically dependent upon each other and inseparable.

The relation of the law to the ideal, the law of the Spirit, is three-fold. First, the law bounds life with its plain requirements, and each one who is in accord with it receives its blessing, he is a good citizen. But as the law is the representative of the moral ideal, it is impossible for sinful men to avoid coming short of its requirements. Before the transgressor there are two ways; if he continues in malicious transgression, the law spews him out,-he becomes "cherem," accursed; but if he confesses his transgression, the law accounts his guilt as an error, and points him to the way of sacrifices of atonement. By the presentation of his sacrifice he expresses in symbol his longing after righteousness. Yet through these very sacrifices a consciousness is awakened in candid minds of the insufficiency of animal sacrifices, of the blood of beasts. On the part of the insincere, the bringing of a sacrifice was a mere service of pretence, instead of an earnest prayer. The sincere offerer was directed to the future, and in hope of the coming real expiation his sacrifice became typical, just as the law itself sets forth this typical character in the great sacrifice of atonement. Thus the son of the law becomes a man of the Spirit, a soldier of God for the realization of His Kingdom, though only in typical form. The decalogue may be regarded as the sign-manual of Christ in outline; the law of sacrifice as the type of His atonement; the march of Israel as the leading of the people of God under His royal orders.

Considered as to its essential character, the law is a treasure-house of veiled promises of God's grace, since every requirement of God is an expression of what He gave man in Paradise, and what He will again give him in accordance with his needs.

In addition to the literature already given, see the articles in HERZOG and in SCHENKEL'S Lexicon. In WINER'S Real- Wörterbuch will be found a very full list of the lite

rature.

THE TABERNACLE.

The idea that there was no central holy place before the Levitical tabernacle, gives rise to certain critical assumptions. But one might as well doubt that there was a tabernacle in the wilderness. The idea of the tabernacle arises from the relation of the law to the life of Israel, or from the requirement of a three-fold righteousness or holiness. The requirement of social or legal holiness, of legal civic virtue, is the requirement of the court. But as civic virtue cannot be separated from the religious and moral intent which is its spiritual basis, so the court cannot be separated from the sanctuary. The court where sacrifices were brought was one with the Holy place and the Most Holy place. The theocratic court was possible only in its relation to the sanctuary. The Holy Place by its conformation was imperfect, as the place of self-renunciation, of aspiration, of prayers, of moments of enlightenment of the soul, hence an oblong structure, which finds its complement in the square of the Most Holy Place, the place where God reigned supreme, where were the cherubim, the place of the perfect satisfaction of the divine law or of atonement, and of a vision of God which did not kill but made alive, the Shekinah. This gradation recurs in all sanctuaries. In Catholic, Greek, and Roman temples the most holy place is, after the manner of the ancient sanctuary, more or less shut off. In the churches of radical Protestants the chancel as the place of the sacramental assurance of atonement for those who partake of the Supper is made level with the floor of the church, which has no court.

See W. NEUMANN: Die Stiftshütte in Bild und Wort, 1861. RIGGENBACH: Die mosaische Stiftshütte, 1863. He treats of the tabernacle also in the appendix to his pamphlet: Die Zeugnisse des Evangelisten Johannes, 1867. J. POPPER: Der biblische Bericht über die Stiftshütte, 1862. WANGEMANN: Die Bedeutung der Stiftshütte, 1866.

Concerning the form of the tabernacle and the symbolism of the colors, see this Comm. on Rev. xiii. WANGEMANN calls the number five, which is the basis of the measurement of the court, the number of unfulfilled longing after perfection. But this longing does not