THE STRICTNESS OF THE RITUAL OF THE OFFERINGS AS THE EXPRESSION OF THE DISTINCTNESS AND IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE OFFERINGS.

As respects the Passover, it is to be remarked, that the law threatened death to those who should in the seven days of unleavened bread eat bread that was leavened, and thus typically obliterate the dividing line between light and darkness. The significance of the unleavened bread is the separation of the life of the Israelites from the worldly, heathen, Egyptian life. Leaven is also excluded from the meal-offerings, not because in itself it represents the unclean and the evil (see this Comm., Matt. xiii.), for at Pentecost two leavened loaves were offered upon the altar, Lev. xxiii. 17, but because in the holy food all participation in the common worldly life even of Israel should be avoided. Thus too honey is stringently prohibited from the meal-offering, probably as an emblem of Paradise, which was typified by Canaan, the land flowing with milk and honey; and so it was an expression of the fact, that in Paradise offerings should cease, Lev. ii. 11. The assertion that leaven and honey were prohibited, because of their quality of fermentation, is at variance with the permission of wine. The portion of the meal-offerings accruing to the priests were to be eaten only by them in the temple-enclosure; for it represented communion with the Lord. There was also a decided prohibition against eating of the thank-offering on the third day after it was offered, Lev. vii. 18. Also no unclean person should eat of the flesh of the offering, nor should one eat of the flesh of an offering which had become unclean; it must be burned with fire. A sacred feast of two days might easily become secularized by the third day. The Passover-lamb must be eaten on the first day. There was also a stringent provision that those about to be consecrated as priests should during the consecration remain seven days and nights before the door of the tabernacle, Lev. viii. 35. The sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, were smitten with death because they brought strange fire on their censers before the Lord. The service in the sanctuary excluded all self-moved and purely human excitation; and for this reason the sons of Aaron were to drink neither wine nor any strong drink during service in the sanctuary on pain of death. There was also a stringent provision that the highpriest when he went into the Holy of Holies should surround himself with a cloud of incense lest he die. The atonement was perfected only in the atmosphere of prayer, Lev. xvi. Even over the common slaughtering of animals for daily food there was the threat of death. Unthankful enjoyment of the gifts of God was punished with death, Lev. xvii. 4; and so with the eating of blood, Lev. xvii. 10, 11. Besides, not only must the offerer be typically pure, and offer only that which was typically pure, but there was the constantly repeated requirement that the animal must be without blemish and in exact accordance with the requirements of gender and age.

Eating blood was forbidden because it bore the life, the life of the flesh, Lev. xvii. 10. The fat also of beasts fit for sacrifice was appointed for sacrifice; it belonged to the Lord, Lev. iii. 17; vii. 23, 26; xvii. 6. As respects the offering for atonement particularly, we must refer to the exegesis. The special point to be marked is the distinction between this offering as the culmination of all purifications and of the series of festivals.

The typical contrast between clean and unclean, on which all the laws of purifications rest, is of great significance. See the treatise of Sommer in the synopsis of the literature. Uncleanness was the ground for all exclusions from the holy congregation, and delivering over to the unholy world without. Cleanness was the warrant of adhesion to the holy congregation. The particular means of purification was lustration, the theocratic type which developed into the prophetic idea of sprinkling with clean water, into John's baptism, and finally into Christian baptism.

The heathen having been previously circumcised might by lustration become a member of the theocratic congregation, and gradually, under the influence of this fact, the court of the Israelites was enlarged for a court of the Gentiles.*

[If by "lustration" the author means sprinkling, that was ordained only in certain specified cases for those already within the congregation, i. e., at the cleansing of the leper, Lev. xiv.; at the consecration of the Levites, Numb. viii. 7, and at the cleansing of the Israelites made unclean by touching a dead body, Numb. xix.-H. O.]

Corresponding to the classification of clean and unclean men was that of clean and unclean animals. The conceptions of the Pharisees concerning washing with unclean hands as well as the antiquated ideas of Peter, Acts x., show us how the idea of cleanness, as well as the idea of the law itself, might become materialized. It is not unimportant that the first form of uncleanness, the uncleanness of a woman in childbirth, appears as a fruit of the excess of natural life. With this excess of life correspond diseases. Among unclean animals are found, on the one side, those most full of life; on the other side, those which creep. Cleanness by cleansing in water is only negative holiness; it became positive only through sacrifice. For holiness has two sides: separation from the unholy world and consecration to the service and fellowship of the holy God. On the laws of purification see JOACHIM LANGE, Mosaisches Licht und Recht, p. 673 f. That all the holy observances are connected with that requiring purity of blood, and consequently of the relations of the sexes, is undeniably of great significance. Concerning the forbidden degrees of intermarriage we must refer to the exegesis and the works on this subject, especially to those of SPOENDLI and THIERSCH. We must also mention the noble codex of theocratic duties of humanity, Lev. xix. It is only in the light of these laws of humanity that the punitive laws, Lev. xx., are rightly seen. They are in the service of ideal humanity not less than the others. The theocratic sanctity of the priest, Lev. xxi., is quite another picture of life, like the sanctity of the priest after Gregory VII. and during the Middle Ages.

We must refer to the Exegesis and an abundant literature respecting the ordinances of the beautiful festivals of Israel, and respecting the special emphasis of the sanctity of the light in Jehovah's sanctuary and the prophetic and typical Jubilee of the year of Jubilee. The antithesis of the proclamation of the blessing and the curse assures us, that here we are dealing with realities which must continue though the religious interpretation of them should entirely cease. The law's estimate of the vow points to the sphere of freedom, in which everything is God's own, committed to the conscientious keeping of man.

NUMBERS.

The most important points in the first section of the book of Numbers are the following: 1. The typical significance of the Israelite army; 2. The significance of the service of the Levites with the army and in the tabernacle; 3. Rules for preserving the camp holy; 4. The offering of jealousy and the water which brought the curse, or the hindrances of married life in the holy war; 5. The vow of the Nazarite, or the significance of the self-denying warriors in the holy war; 6. The free-will offerings of the princes (chief men and rich men); 7. The care of the sanctuary; 8. Worship in the wilderness and God's guidance of the host, ch. ix.; 9. The signals of war and of peace, the trumpets.

After the commencement of the march we are brought to see the sinfulness of God's host, their transgressions and punishments in their typical significance; especially the homesickness for Egypt; the seventy elders to encourage the people as a blessing in this distress. Against this blessing stands in contrast their calamity in eating the quails. Mixed marriage on its bright side, ch. xii. Concerning the spies, the abode in Kadesh, the rebellion of Korah and his company, the significance of the mediation of Aaron and of his staff that blossomed, of the rights of the priests and Levites, the ashes of the red heifer, and the failure of Moses at the water of strife, we must refer to the Exegesis.

For our views with respect to the second departure from Kadesh, which we trust will serve to correct some errors, we must refer to the exegetical sections on the King of Arad, the passage of the brooks of Arnon, the over-estimated prophecies of Balaam, the great danger of Israel's addiction to a worship of lust, and especially the revision of the views concerning the stations of the march, ch. xxxiii.

The second census of the people illustrates the necessity and value of theocratic statistics. The daughters of Zelophehad form a station in the history of the development of the rights of women—rights which had been greatly marred by sin. The ordering of the festivals in the book of Numbers shows us that the solemn festivals are also social festivals, and that they are of great significance in the life of the people and in the state. The subordination of the authority of woman in respect to the family, to domestic offerings, to external affairs,

is of special significance for our times when woman has well-nigh freed herself. Concerning the war for vengeance on the Midianites, we must also refer to the Exegesis. The treatment of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh was a master-piece of theocratic policy, as well as a strong testimony to the great blessing of the nation's unity. The Old Testament limits and enclosure of the law by the boundaries of Canaan is also a testimony against the claims of the absolute supremacy of the law. Concerning the legal significance of the free cities, see, the Exegesis. The close of this book which treats of the state significantly protects the rights of the tribes, and illustrates a doctrine of signal importance for churches, states and nationalities in strong contrast with the notion of old and new Babel that the uniformity of the world is the condition and soul of the unity of the world. The plan of encampment will be seen by the following sketch:

This, despite severe criticism, proves itself by certain marks to be a very ancient record. Benjamin is separated from Judah, and is under the leading of Ephraim. Nothing is said of a division of the tribe of Manasseh, and its position is far from that of Reuben and Gad. Ephraim appears as one of the smaller tribes.

The abundant care for the poor in Israel has been treated at length by ZELLER, Superintendent of the School for the Poor in Beuggen, in the Monatsblatt von Beuggen, August, 1845, No. 8. On Kadesh see TUCH on Gen. xiv. in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen

Gesellschaft, 1847, p. 179 f. Also see the articles on Kadesh in HERZOG's Encyclopædie and SCHENKEL'S Bibellexicon. The most important works on the Book of Numbers are quoted as occasion requires; G. D. KRUMMACHER; MENKEN, Die eherne Schlange; HENGSTENBERG, Balaam; RIEHM, et al. See also DANZ, Universalwörterbuch, p. 699. WINER, I., p. 202.

THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE OF THE THREE BOOKS.

See this Comm., Indexes of the Literature in Introduction to Gen, and to Matt.; HEIDEGGER, Enchiridion, p. 15; WALCH, Biblioth. iv. 437; WINER, 134 ff., 202; Appendix, p. 27-31; DANZ, p. 745 ff.; Suppl. p. 81; HARTWIG's Tabellen, p. 29; HAGENBACH, pp. 186, 199; Works by J. J. HESS, KUINOEL, G. L. BAUEr, De Wette, Jost, Leo, BERTHEAU, EWALD, LENGERKE and others. Later, BUNSEN's Bibelwerk, DECHSEL'S Bibelwerk, BRESLAU, DUELFER. Comprehensive treatises on the three books are found in histories of Old Testament religion, of the kingdom of God and in compendiums of biblical theology. We must also include in this list the writings of JOSEPHUS, PHILO, ORIGEN, EUSEBIUS, JEROME and others which refer to this subject.

Lexicons.-SCHENKEL'S Bibellexicon.

Biblical Theology.-BRUNO BAUER, Religion des Alten Testaments; VATKE, Baur, SCHULTZ, VON DER GOLTZ; EWALD, Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, Vol. I.; Die Lehre vom Worte Gottes, Vol. II.; Die Glaubenslehre, erste haelfte, Leipzig, 1871; DIESTEL, Geschichte des Alten Testaments in der Christlichen Kirche, Jena, 1869; ZAHN, Ein Gang durch die Heilige Geschichte, Gotha, 1868; BAUR, Geschichte der alttestamentlichen Weissagung, 1 Theil, 1861; ZIEGLER, Historische Entwicklung der göttlichen Offenbarung; DE WETTE, Die biblische Geschichte als Geschichte der Offenbarung Gottes, Berlin, 1846.

Consult the works of earlier writers, as ARETIUS, BRENZ, GROTIUS, OSIANDER, Dathe, VATER, HARTMANN. Five Books of Moses, Berleburger Bibel, new ed., Stuttgart, 1856; CLERICUS on Pentateuch, Amsterdam, 1693; JOACHIM LANGE, Mosaisches Licht und Recht; HENGSTENBERG, Christology of the Old Testament, Egypt and the Books of Moses, Balaam, Die Opfer der Heiligen Schrift, Die Geschichte des Reiches Gottes; BLEEK, Introduction to the Old Testament; BAUMGARTEN, Kommentar zum Alten Testament, 2 Theile; KURTZ, History of the Old Covenant, 3 vols.; KNOBEL, Kommentare zu Exodus, Leviticus und Numeri; KEIL and DELITZSCH, Biblical Commentary, Pentateuch, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.

Works by Jews.-SALVADOR, Histoire des Institutions de Moyse et du peuple hebreux, 3 vols., Paris, 1828; PHILIPPSON, Die Israelitische Bibel, Der Pentateuch, Leipzig, 1858; ZUNZ, Uebersetzung des Alten Testaments; R. S. HIRSCH, Der Pentateuch übersetzt und erläutert, Frankfurt, a. m., 1867–9; HARZHEIMER, Die 24 Bücher der Bibel, Pentateuch, Leipzig; MANDELBAUM, Die Bibel neu übersetzt und erklärt, Einleitung in dem Pentateuch, Berlin,

1864.

Historical Works.-ARNAUD, Le Pentateuch mosaique, défendu contre les attaques de la critique négative, Paris, 1865; FUERST, Geschichte der biblischen Literatur, 2 Bände, Leipzig, 1867; H. WRIGHT, The Pentateuch with ** Translation, specimen part, Gen. i.-iv., London, 1869; BRAEM, Israel's Wanderung von Gosen bis zum Sinai, Elberfeld, 1859; COLENSO, The Pentateuch, 1863 (a sample of traditional, abstractly literal interpretation). In opposition to COLENSO, The Historic Character of the Pentateuch Vindicated, Lond, 1863; The Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuch, by a Layman, London, 1864; GRAF, Die geschichtlichen Bücher des Alten Testaments, Leipzig, 1866; HITZIG, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipzig, 1869; EBERS, Egypten und die Bücher Moses; writings of BRUGSCH, LIPSIUS and GUTSCHMID, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alten Orients zur Würdigung von Bunsen's Egypten, 1857; J. BRAUN, Historische Landschaften, Stuttgart, 1867; K. VON RAUMER, Der Zug der Israeliten aus Egypten nach Kanaan, Langensalza, 1860; VOELTER, Das heilige Land und das Land der israelitschen Wanderung; HOLTZMANN und WEBER, Geschichte des Volkes Israel und der Entstehung des Christenthums, Leipzig, 1867; NOELDEKE, Die alttestamentliche Literatur in einer Reihe von Aufsätzen, Leipzig, 1868; BUNSEN, God in History; BUSCH, Urgeschichte des Orients, 2 Bände, Leipzig; STIER, Heilsgeschichte des Alten Testaments, Halle, 1872; LABORDE, Com

mentaire géographique sur l'Exode et les Nombres, Paris, 1841; FAIRBAIRN, The Typology of Scripture, Edinburgh, 1854; MILLS, Sacred Symbology, or an Inquiry into the Principles of the Interpretation of the Prophetic Symbols, Edinburgh, 1853; BEKE, Origines biblicæ, London, 1854.

Special Treatises.-RANKE, Untersuchungen; NETTELER, Studien über die Echtheit des Pentateuchs, Münster, 1867; KOHN, Samaritanische Studien, Breslau, 1866; TRIP, Theophanien in den Geschichts büchern des Alten Testaments, Leiden, 1858; TUCH, Sinaitische Inschriften, Leipzig, 1846; APPIA, Essai biographique sur Moyse, Strasburg, 1853; CHAPPUIS, De l'ancien Testament, considéré dan ses Rapports avec le Christianisme, Lausanne, 1858; SALOMON, Moses der Mann Gottes, 1835; SIEGEL, Moses; BOETTCHER, Exegetische Ehrenlese zum Alten Testament, Leipzig, 1864; FRIEDERICH, Zur Bibel; HARTMANN, Historisch Kritische Forschungen, Berlin, 1831; HUELLMANN, Staatsverfassung der Israeliten; UNGER, Chronologie des Manetho, Berlin, 1866; treatises of a popular character by KIRCHLOFer, Staudt, STEGLICH, POSTEL and others; special articles in Herzog's Encyclopædie and in the Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie from 1858-1872, and in the Studien und Kritiken, 1872.

On Hebrew art, see the Archæologies by KEIL and others. On Hebrew poetry LoWTH, HERDER, SAALSCHUETZ, SACK, TAYLOR.

On the relation of the Old Testament to Assyria, SCHRADER, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, Giessen, 1872.