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terms of the Shimonoseki treaty, have not yet been opened. The opening of the West river was promised to Great Britain in 1895, and an imperial edict was issued declaring it open, but tedious negotiations had yet to be gone through with as to what ports on the river were to be opened and within what limits and under what regulations was navigation to be allowed in foreign bottoms. The West river was at last opened to steamers as far as Woochow-Foo on June 4, 1897. The opening of this water way is the compensation exacted by Great Britain for the cession to France in 1895 of a part of the Kiang-Hung district to the south of the Yunnan province in spite of an engagement made by China when the district was assigned to her by Great Britain under the Burmah frontier treaty that it should not pass to any other power without the consent of the British Government. By the waters of the West river and its tributaries access is obtained to the eastern part of Yunnan, the southern part of Kweichow, the province of Kwangsi, and the western part of Kwangtung, but the part of the river opened to foreign commerce only reaches into Kwangsi for the distance of ten miles beyond the border of Kwangtung province. Besides Woochow the only port opened is Samshui.

The French have been compensated for the opening of the West river to British commerce by receiving permission to extend their Tonquin Railroad to Yunnan-Foo, the capital of Yunnan, by way of Kwangsi. French engineers will be allowed to work the mines near the frontier.

Navigation.-There were 8,956 sailing vessels, of 1,053,670 tons, and 28,176 steamers, of 28,683,408 tons, entered and cleared during 1895. Of the total number of 37,132, of 29,737,078 tons, 19,579, of 20,525,798 tons, were British; 13,014, of 5,220,121 tons, Chinese; 2,684, of 2,442,185 tons, German; 266, of 341.345 tons, French; 108, of 121,691 tons, Japanese; and 92, of 86,427 tons, American.

Communications.-The internal commerce of China is exceedingly large, although roads, canals, and natural water ways afford all the means of transportation, except the railroad originally built from the Kaiping coal mines to deep water on the Petang river and now extended to Tientsin and beyond in the direction of Shan-Hai-Kwan. The extension of the Northern Railroad from Tientsin to Pekin was completed in the summer of 1897. A Belgian syndicate, supported by the French and Russian ministers, in return for a 4-per-cent. loan of £4,000,000 sterling, running ninety years and taken at 90 per cent., obtained a concession for the construction of the trunk line from Pekin to HanKow, on the Yangtse-Kiang. This railroad, to be completed by 1903, is 700 miles in length. An American syndicate also bid for this concession, but could not obtain the contract. The syndicate was to have a hand in the construction of the rest of the projected railroad system of 2,000 miles and to receive a 5-per-cent. commission on all material purchased. Of the material half is to be supplied by China and the other half by tenders from abroad. The other projected railroads were a continuation of the Han-Kow line to Canton, a line from Shanghai to Soochow and Hangchow, and the extension of the Northern Railroad to Kirin and Moukden. The British, German, and American ministers protested against this arrangement as infringing most-favored-nation rights, and consequently the monopoly clauses were not confirmed. British and German capitalists would not invest in the projected system of railroads because they were to be under the control of a Chinese official, while Sheng-Tajen, the Chinese Director General of Railroads, found it difficult to raise 13,000,000 taels of native capital that he promised. The obstacles were

sufficient to prevent the Belgian scheme from going through, and railroad construction, except the PekinHan-Kow line, was postponed. The Manchurian railroad from the Onon station of the Transbaikal section of the Great Siberian Railroad, through Tsitsihar, Kulanchen, and Ningtu, in Manchuria, to Nikolsk, on the South Ussuri Railroad, will have a length of 1,273 miles, of which 945 miles will be in Chinese territory. It deflects the Siberian route nearly 400 miles southward into the fruitful valley of the Sungari river, and shortens it by 341 miles. Work has been begun on a railroad from Shanghai to Woosung. Sheng's extensive scheme of construction, in addition to the difficulty of raising money, met with a serious obstacle in the unwillingness of owners of land to grant the right of way, which they have never been compelled to do under Chinese law by the process of expropriation. When certain landowners refused to allow the Woosung line to cross their property Sheng and the Nankin viceroy issued proclamations quoting the imperial authority for enforcing sales of land at valuations to be determined by local officials. A British syndicate in September, 1897, offered to advance £2,000,000 for the construction of a line from Shanghai to Soochow and Nankin, and at a future date £3,000,000 for its extension through Honan, both advances to be on the same terms as those of the Belgian contract.

The Imperial Government has telegraph lines connecting the capital with all the ports and the frontier provinces, and connecting with the Russian system in Manchuria and with the British Indian system at Manwyne, on the border of Yunnan and Burmah.

The post carts and runners of the imperial postal system hitherto prevailing have been insufficient, so that private messengers have been employed frequently, and the Maritime Customs Department has maintained in the winter months a special service between Pekin and the seaports. The Government issued an edict on March 20, 1896, to expand this service into a national post office of the European type, which will be under the direction of the Inspector General of Customs. The Swiss Government received notice that China intends to join the postal union.

Relations with Russia.-A convention concluded with China by Count Cassini, the Russian minister at Pekin, in the summer of 1896, in the form in which it was made public, conceded to the Russian Government the privilege of building a branch of the Siberian Railroad from some city in Siberia to Aiyun, in the Amur province, thence southwestward to the provincial capital of Tsitsihar and to Petune, in Kirin, and thence southeastward to the provincial capital of Kirin; also to make a prolongation from the Russian port of Vladivostok to Hunchun, in Kirin province, and thence to the provincial capital of Kirin. The object of connecting the Russian Railroad with the railroad system projected for the three eastern provinces, Fengtien, Kirin, and Heilung-Chiang, is stated to be not only that of facilitating the transport of goods and promoting international commerce between the two empires, but also the strengthening of the frontier defenses and seacoasts. The privileges conceded to Russia are said to be a response for loyal support at the close of the war between China and Japan and aid in securing the retrocession of Liaotung and its dependencies. The railroads are to be built by Russia at her own expense, and are to remain under the control of Russia for thirty years, at the end of which China, if so disposed, may purchase the railroads, rolling stock, and machine shops. If China finds difficulty in extending the existing railroad from Shan-Hai

Kwan to Moukden, the provincial capital of Fengtien, and thence to the capital of Kirin province, Russia is authorized to provide funds and undertake the construction, following the Chinese survey from Kirin to Moukden, Newchwang, etc., and China may redeem this railroad at the end of ten years. The railroad to be built by China from Shan-Hai-Kwan to Newchwang, Kaiping, Chinchow, and Lushunkow, or Port Arthur, and thence to Talienwan, shall follow Russian railroad regulations in order to facilitate commercial intercourse between the two empires. In the settled districts the local civil and military officials will protect the railroads built in Chinese territory by Russia, but in barren and sparsely inhabited districts Russia shall be allowed to place cavalry and infantry guards at the various important stations. The interdict on the exploitation of mines in Kirin and Heilung-Chiang will be removed. Should China require to reorganize and train on the Western system the territorial army of the three eastern provinces, Russia will furnish qualified military officers on the same conditions as German officers in the Liang-Kiang provinces. Russia has never possessed a seaport in Asia that is free from ice and open all the year round. If, therefore, military operations should suddenly arise in Asia, China is willing, in order to enable the Russian fleets in the eastern seas and the Pacific to move about freely and at pleasure, to lease temporarily to Russia the port of Kiaochow, in the province of Shan-Tung, the period of the lease being limited to fifteen years, at the end of which China shall buy all the barracks, godowns, machine shops, and docks built by Russia. But should there be no danger of military operations Russia shall not immediately enter into possession of the port, in order to obviate the chance of exciting the jealousy or suspicions of other powers. As the Liaotung ports of Lushunkow, or Port Arthur, and Talienwan are important strategical points, it shall be incumbent on China to fortify them properly, and Russia shall lend all necessary assistance in helping to protect them, and shall not permit any other power to encroach upon them. China, on her part, binds herself never to cede them to another country; but if Russia should find herself involved in a war, China consents to allow Russia temporarily to concentrate her land and naval forces within these ports.

The terms of this treaty were modified in various particulars, but not to the detriment of Russia's position in northern China. The treaty was the outcome of negotiations begun with Li-Hung-Chang in Pekin, and continued by him with Prince Lobanoff in St. Petersburg. The Eastern Chinese Railroad Company was organized with its chief office in St. Petersburg, having a Chinese official for president, but Russian directors and a vicepresident in real control, who is appointed by the Russian Minister of Finance. None but Russian and Chinese subjects can acquire shares in this company. The company has received the sanction of the Chinese Government to construct telegraph lines from the Liaotung peninsula to Helampo, on the Chinese frontier, and from Aiyun to the eastern Siberian terminus.

New Anglo-Chinese Agreement.-The opening of the West river was only part of the compensation exacted by Great Britain for the violation of the provisions of the convention of March 1, 1894, whereby England renounced in favor of China the suzerain rights over the states of Muang-Lem and Kiang-Hung, to which she had laid claim as successor to the King of Ava, on condition that China should not, without a previous agreement with England, cede any portion of these territories to any other nation. China did, on June 20, 1895,

cede to France a large part of Kiang-Hung to the east of Mekong. In consideration of Great Britain's consenting to waive all objections to this cession China, on Feb. 4, 1897, signed an additional agreement, granting territorial and commercial concessions to Great Britain, and the ratifications were exchanged on June 5. The territory ceded is on the border of Burmah and Yunnan. The boundary line from the Mekong to the point where it first strikes the Salween remains unchanged; but, instead of following the thalweg of the Salween for a considerable distance, as before, it takes a sweep to the northeast, leaving to Burmah the Shan state of Kokang and a part of Wanting, a territory 60 miles in extreme length and 25 miles in extreme breadth. Between the Shweli river and the northern termination of the frontier there are three smaller concessions, the smallest of which is a triangular tract between the Nam-Wan and the Nam-Mak, which is recognized in the agreement as Chinese territory, but is ceded to England on a perpetual lease for a rent to be determined at some future time. In addition to the Manwyne and Sansi routes for overland trade, which alone were sanctioned in the convention of 1894, any other routes that may be found desirable in the interest of trade will be opened on the same terms as those. England obtains permission to appoint a consul at either Momein or Shunning-Foo, and one also at Ssumao. British subjects and persons under British protection may establish themselves and trade at these places on the same terms as at treaty ports. The Chinese Government agrees to consider whether the conditions of trade justify the construction of railroads in Yunnan, and in the event of their construction agrees to connect them with the Burmese lines. The significance of this stipulation is that if the French penetrate Yunnan with their railroad, England will insist on its being connected with the system of Burmah.

German Seizure of Kiaochow.-The Chinese Government made plans to establish and fortify a naval station in the Bay of Kiaochow, immediately south of the Shan-Tung promontory, which commands the southern approach to the Gulf of Chili. A strong naval base at this point was reported to be necessary to the safety of China's contemplated naval armaments. This is the point mentioned in the published version of the secret treaty with Russia which is to be occupied by Russian forces for the protection of China's capital in the event of fresh hostilities breaking out in the far East. The Chinese Government granted permission for the temporary use of the bay as a winter station by the Russian fleet in the Pacific. In the beginning of November, Germany landed sailors and marines at Kiaochow, and subsequently stores and material were brought, as if a permanent occupation were intended. The ostensible purpose of the seizure was to insist on redress for the murder of two German missionaries.

Attacks on Missionaries.-Whereas the immediate effect of the war with Japan was to occasion fresh outbreaks of popular rage against missionaries as representatives of the outer barbarians from whom the Japanese had learned the art of war, a desire for a nearer aquaintance with Western institutions and sciences began to be manifested by some of the literati, and the attitude of the provincial officials toward the missionaries in many places became more friendly and respectful. The exist ence of famine, political disturbances, and the agitation of secret societies in various parts of the empire, fresh revivals of antiforeign feeling traceable to the war or diplomatic disputes, and the renewed circulation of the stereotyped slanders against the missionaries caused outbreaks to occur in various

places during 1897. In January shots were fired at an American mission near Foochow. On April 1 Père Mazel, a French missionary, was murdered at Loli, on the West river, in a region where robbery and disorder were rife. The priest saw the marauders approaching, barricaded the back door, and prepared to defend the front entrance with a rifle; but a part of the mob tore down the barricades in the rear and killed the missionary with shots from behind. These were not robbers, but fanatics, as they left without plundering the house after murdering the priest and mutilating his body. AntiChristian riots occurred at Lintsing, in Shan-Tung province, where a league of fanatics was formed for the purpose of expelling the Roman Catholics and destroying all their property. In one fight 3 missionaries were killed, 8 wounded, and 4 captured. In Chingtu, the capital of Szechuen, the talk of foreigners kidnaping children was revived and Americans and Europeans were accused of having mapped out the country for conquest. In Kiangsi the English mission at Woochen was destroyed in June, and the Catholic mission was saved only by the intervention of troops. Later the French Catholics in the Yaopeng distinct of Kwangtung requested their Government to interfere because, as they asserted, the Chinese were persecuting their converts, inflicting tortures, and burning houses and crops.

Famine and Plague.-A drought in the gorge district of the Yangtse-Kiang caused a disastrous famine extending from Ichang up to Chunking and into the hill country in the east. The rivers were so low that rice could not be carried to the sufferers, who perished by thousands in the spring months. In Hupeh the maddened people revolted against the authorities. In northern Szechuen and to the north and east of it towns were half depopulated by starvation and hunger typhus. An army of 30,000 starving people gathered in Szechuen, and in the city of Kichow they enforced demands for food with violence. Pitched battles were fought between the mobs and the Government troops, and 120 soldiers were killed or wounded, necessitating the dispatch of fresh troops from Chunkiang. Smallpox became very prevalent in central and western China, and near the seacoast the black plague broke out in Swatow and other places.

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, UNITED SOCIETY OF. The following statistics of Societies of Christian Endeavor were published in the "Chriscian Endeavor Bulletin" of Sept. 11, 1897:

In the United States: Young People's Societies, 27,505; Junior Societies, 11,710; Intermediate, 395; Mothers', 68; Senior. 22.

In Canada: Young People's Societies, 2,925; Junior, 468; Intermediate, 5; Parents', 2; Mothers', 1.

In foreign lands: Young People's Societies, 7.306; Junior. 753; Senior, 6; Mothers', 2: Intermediate, 4. Floating societies, 92.

Whole number of societies, 51,264; of members, 3,075,840.

The International Convention of these societies was held in San Francisco, Cal.. July 5 to 12. The annual address of President Clark was on the society as "A World-Encircling Religious Movement. How shall it fulfill God's Design?" The secretary's report showed that 5,000 new societies had been added, in all countries, during the year, and the whole number was now 50,747, with a membership estimated at 3,000,000. Of the societies besides those in the United States, 3,925 were in England, 2,124 in Australia, 433 in Scotland, 311 in Wales, 250 in India, 169 in Ireland, 93 in Madagascar, 68 in France, 100 in Mexico, 66 in Japan, 63 in the West Indies, 41 in Turkey, 53 in China, 52 in Africa, 32

in Germany, with, in all, 7,919 societies outside of America; while Canada had 3,390 societies. The denominations most largely represented in the societies in the United States were, in the order in which they are named, the Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Disciples of Christ, Baptists, Cumberland Presbyterians, Methodist Protestants, etc.; in Canada, the Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, etc.; in the United Kingdom, the Congregationalists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Primitive Methodists, etc.; in Australia, the Wesleyan Methodists. The gifts to missions, through their respective church boards, of 10,468 societies, amounted to nearly $200,000, and it was estimated that the same societies had given an equal amount for other benevolences.

Much attention was given to the subject of missions, and many missionaries were present, with speakers from India, Japan, and Australia. Practical questions of methods and work were considered. A "rally" was held in behalf of Sabbath observance. One meeting was given up to mothers. Twenty-six denominational rallies were held. It was announced that changes were under consideration in committee which would give broader denominational and geographical representation to the body.

CHRISTIAN SCIENTISTS. The doctrine of this sect was first promulgated by Mrs. Mary B. Eddy in 1866. Besides the belief respecting God, the Scriptures, man's sinfulness, the atonement, redemption through the suffering of Christ, the forgiveness of sins, etc., it holds as a distinctive tenet that the way of salvation demonstrated by Jesus is the power of truth over all error, sin, sickness, and death; and it exacts from its adherents a promise to pray for that mind to be in them which was in Christ Jesus. Connected with this doctrine is a healing system based upon the theory that all is mind, without which matter is unreal and nonexistent. The society has enjoyed a very rapid increase within the past few years, which, according to one of its writers, has been most remarkable since the cessation of preaching in 1895. Previous to that time, for twenty-nine years, sermons were delivered before the congregations like those usual in the other denominations; but within the past three years the services have consisted simply in readings, responsive liturgy, and exposition of the Scriptures. Two readers are connected with each society and conduct the service throughout. Besides the Bible, Mrs. Eddy's "Science and Health" and the "Key to the Scriptures" are recognized as authoritative text-books. Every member may be a healer and missionary, but there are also professional healers and missionaries who devote their entire time to the work. In 1894 the Christian Scientists had in the United States 300 societies meeting regularly for worship, 26 teaching institutions, and 66 dispensaries and reading rooms. They had at the end of 1897 229 chartered churches, 114 other regularly established Sunday services, 3,500 ministers, and 40,000 members in the United States, with 64 public reading rooms, situated mainly in the larger cities. These figures show an increase during the year of 44 chartered churches, 500 ministers, and 15,000 members. It is believed that the whole number of adherents in the United States and Canada is not less than 250,000, and that the number of attendants has doubled within the past twelve months. Ten churches were built or acquired in the United States, one in Toronto, Canada, and one in London, England, during the year; and ground and a Christian Science Hall have been acquired in Concord, N. H. The society has also had marked growth in England, Germany, Italy, France, and Norway.

COLOMBIA, a republic in South America. The Senate is composed of 27 members, 3 from each department, elected for six years by indirect suffrage. The House of Representatives is composed of 68 members, elected by direct vote of the people for four years. Any male citizen twenty-one years old and able to read and write, or having an income of 500 pesos or real property worth 1,500 pesos, is entitled to vote. The acting President after the death of President Nuñez on Sept. 18, 1894, was Vice-President M. A. Caro, who resigned in September, 1896, handing over the executive authority to Antonio Roldau for the remainder of the term expiring Aug. 7, 1898. The Cabinet in the beginning of 1897 was composed as follows: Minister of Foreign Affairs, G. Holguin; Minister of Commerce and Communications, D. Ferreira; Minister of War, Gen. Molina; Minister of Public Instruction, J. M. Carrasquilla; Minister of Finance, Ponce Leon.

Area and Population.-The area of the republic is estimated to be 513,938 square miles. The population was estimated in 1895 at 4,000,000, including 150.000 uncivilized Indians. Education is free in the primary schools, of which there were 1,817, with 89,000 pupils in average attendance, in 1894. The Government maintains 15 normal schools, with 600 students, and a university, with 1,600, while 1,000 more attended the universities of the departments.

Finances.-The customs yield nearly two thirds of the revenue, which was estimated in the budget for the period 1895-'96 at 26,226,300 pesos, while the expenditure was expected to amount to 26,305,191 pesos. The estimates for the biennial period ending June 30, 1898, make the revenue 28,224,000 pesos.

The consolidated internal debt on June 30, 1896, amounted to 5,633,046 pesos, and there was a floating debt of 1,892,110 pesos. The paper money in circulation amounted to 30,862,352 pesos, making the total currency obligations of the Government 38,387,508 pesos. The foreign debt consists of a loan of £1,913,500 raised in England in 1873 and arrears of interest on this, bringing the total up to. £3,514,442 on Dec. 31, 1896. An arrangement for the settlement of the debt was made with the British creditors, subject to the approval of the Colombian Congress.

After the conversion of 1873 the coupons were paid till 1879, and since then the bonds have been in default. Compromises made with the foreign bondholders in 1881 and 1884 were not ratified by the Congress. Another on: negotiated in 1890 was rejected by the bondholders, and the Government would not even consider any arrangement until in 1896 a provisional agreement was made, according to which the Colombian Government undertook to pay the full principal and 43 per cent. of the defaulted interest, giving new bonds bearing 14 per cent. interest for the first three years, 2 per cent. for the next, and after six years 24 per cent., with a sinking fund that would extinguish the debt in thirty-six years.

The Cerruti claim for the value of estates and stores destroyed by Government troops in 1885 on suspicion that the owner, an Italian subject, was abetting the revolution then in progress, was referred to President Cleveland, who awarded the claimant £60,000 sterling and a guarantee against debts accruing from the loss of his business. This guarantee the Colombian Government refused to give, asserting that the matter was not submitted for arbitration.

Army. The army on the peace footing is fixed at 5,300 officers and men. In case of war every Colombian fit to bear arms can be called into the service.

Commerce and Production.-There are 4,961 mines in Colombia, of which 3,398 are alluvial or quartz gold mines in Antioquia. In Cauca and Tolima, where 1,365 of the mines are situated, silver is found associated with gold and other metals. The average annual product of the precious metals is $4,000,000. There are 30 emerald mines, 14 for cinnabar, 7 manganese mines, and others for the production of copper, platinum, lead, quicksilver, iron, coal, and salt. The Muzo mine produces about $100,000 worth of emeralds annually. The salt mines at Zipaquira, belonging to the Government, almost supply the needs of the courtry. Petroleum and coal are found in several departments. The iron mined at Pradera, near Bogotá, is manufactured into wrought iron, rails, and machinery castings. Agriculture is not carried on extensively, though the soil in many parts is very fertile. The improvement of facilities for transportation would greatly enlarge the opportunities for commerce in agricultural produce. Coffee of fine quality is produced, and its cultivation is extending rapidly. Other products are tobacco, cacao, sugar, vegetable ivory, rubber, and dyewoods. There are 3,465,000 cattle, horses, mules, and asses, and 3,487,000 sheep, goats, and hogs in the country according to official estimates. The total value of the imports in 1895 was 11,528,365 pesos, and of the exports 15,088,406. The principal articles of import are food, drinks, textiles, and iron and steel goods. The exports are gold bars and dust, coffee, peanuts, silver ore, cacao, cotton, dyestuffs, live animals, tobacco, rubber, hides, and timber.

Navigation. The number of vessels entered at the port of Barranquilla in 1895 was 261, of 392,573 tons, and cleared 258, of 391,668 tons. The merchant marine consisted of 5 sailing vessels, of 1,157 tons, and 1 steamer, of 138 tons. Of 33 steamers that call at the ports of Colombia every month, 15 are British, 9 American, 4 German, 3 French, 1 Spanish, and 1 Italian.

Communications.-There were 346 miles of railroad in operation in 1896. The telegraphs have a length of 6,835 miles. The internal postal traffic in 1893 was 302,410 letters and postal cards, 615,844 samples and papers, and 70,038 registered letters and packets, while 342.440 letters and 206,171 papers and packets were mailed for foreign countries.

The Panama Canal.-The new canal company, formed in Paris in 1894 to complete the ten-lock canal rising to a maximum altitude of 133 feet, in the place of the sea-level canal originally planned by Ferdinand de Lesseps, made fair progress with the limited capital at its disposal, only 62,500,000 francs, of which not more than half was available for work on the canal. The cuttings in the Culebra and Emperador sections have assumed definite proportions. At the beginning of 1897 there were 3,600 laborers at work, recruited in Jamaica and Trinidad, in Sierra Leone, and in the provinces of Colombia. The present work is mainly experimental, intended to prove that a lock canal is feasible. About 1,500,000,000 francs have been expended since the scheme was first launched in 1881. The net receipts of the Panama Railroad, which is owned almost entirely by the canal company, increased from $266,000 in 1895 to $396,000 in 1896. The profits of four years have been applied to the purchase of three ocean steamers. The traffic from the Pacific to the Atlantic has decreased, owing to small crops and the competition of tramp steamers, but in the opposite direction, through arrangements with the steamship companies, there has been a large increase of traffic. The Government receives $250,000 a year from the railroad.

The commission of engineers reported in 1890 that to complete the canal, with a width of 98 feet at

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