CHAPTER IV.

GOVERNMENT OF CHINA.

“EXTREMES MEET," says the old proverb, and every department of knowledge and experience corroborates the truthfulness of the sentiment. We doubt, however, whether any one ever fancied that a comparison between the respective governments of China and the United States of America would furnish a striking illustration of this popular adage. And yet, incredible as the statement may seem, we are prepared to show that, in form at least, an analogy exists between the most recent system of representative government and the oldest political despotism in the world. The existence of a central government as the supreme authority in the empire, the division of Chinese territory into provinces or states, counties, townships, and wards; the presence of regularly organized provincial or state governments, their independence as between themselves, and their subordination to the central government; the brief tenures of office prescribed for state officers, and the regulations controlling rotation in office; the existence of municipal organizations among the people, and the large amount of freedom and authority they exercise in the management of local matters; all these features.

CELESTIAL RULER.

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of the Chinese government, and others to which we might refer, find, partially at least, their correspondences in the government of the United States of America. The contrasts, however, between these two governments are obvious and radical. The government of China is thoroughly despotic. The emperor is the sole and supreme head of the Chinese constitution and government. He is regarded as the vicegerent of Heaven, chosen by divine authority to govern all the world, and is called "The August Lofty One," "Celestial Ruler," "Sacred Sovereign," "Son of Heaven," "Sire of Ten Thousand Years," etc. Theoretically he is supreme in everything, possessing without limit or control the highest legislative and executive powers; practically, however, there are limits to this apparently irresponsible authority. Although the emperor is the fountain of all power, rank, honor, and privilege to all within his dominions; although he is the recognized head of religion, the only one qualified to adore Heaven, the source of law, and the dispenser of mercy; still the people regard him as bound to rule according to the published laws of the land, and his power is yet further circumscribed by public opinion, the want of an efficient standing army, poverty, and the venality of his own official agents.

There is in the Chinese government nothing fully analogous to a congress, parliament, or tiers état; still necessity compels the emperor to consult and advise with some of his officers. There are two imperial councils, which may be regarded as the organs of communication between the imperial head and the

body politic; namely, the Cabinet or Privy Council, and the General or Public Council. Subordinate to these two councils are the administrative parts of the supreme government, consisting of the six boards, the Colonial Office, Censorate, Courts of Representation and Appeal, and the Imperial College.

The Cabinet or Privy Council is composed of six chancellors, under whom are six grades of officers, amounting in all to upward of two hundred persons, more than half of whom are Manchus. The imperial statutes state that the duties of this cabinet are, "to deliberate on the government of the empire, proclaim abroad the imperial pleasure, regulate the canons of state, together with the whole administration of the great balance of power, thus aiding the emperor in directing the affairs of the nation."

The General Council is of more recent organization, and is probably the most influential body in the Chinese government. It is composed of princes of the blood, the chancellors of the cabinet, the presidents and vice-presidents of the six boards, and the chief officers of all the other courts in the capital, selected at the emperor's pleasure. The number of members in this General Council probably varies according to his majesty's pleasure; but as no list of them is given in the Red Book, it is impossible to tell the proportion of Chinese and Manchu officers constituting this mainspring of the Chinese government.

Under the foregoing two councils at Pekin, the national capital, are the six boards, departments of long standing in the government, having originated during the ancient dynasties of the empire.

CIVIL OFFICE, REVENUE, ETC.

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1. The Board of Civil Office "has the government and direction of all the officers in the civil service of the empire, and thereby assists the emperor to rule the people." It further takes charge of "whatever appertains to the plans of selecting rank and gradation, to the rules of determining degradation and promotion, to the ordinances of granting investitures and rewards, and the laws for fixing schedules and furloughs that the civil service may be supplied."

2. The Board of Revenue "directs the territorial government of the empire, and keeps the lists of population, in order to aid the emperor in nourishing the people, controls whatever appertains to the regulations for levying and collecting duties and taxes, to the plans for distributing salaries and allowances, to the rates for receipts and disbursements at the granaries and treasuries, and to the rights for transporting by land and water, that sufficient supplies may be provided for the country."

3. The Board of Rites "examines and directs concerning the performance of the five kinds of ritual observances, and makes proclamation thereof to the whole empire, thus aiding the emperor in guiding all the people. Whatever appertains to the ordinances for regulating precedence and literary distinctions, to the canons for maintaining religious honor and fidelity, to the orders respecting intercourse and tribute, and to the forms of giving banquets and granting bounties, are reported to this board in order to promote national education." The five rites referred to are the propitious, the felicitous, the infelicitous, the military, and the hospitable rites.

4. The Board of War "has the government and direction of all the officers within and without the provinces employed in the military service of the nation, for the purpose of aiding the emperor in protecting all the people. Whatever appertains to the ordinances for taking away, giving, and resuming office or inheriting rank, to the plans of the post-office department, to the rules of military examination and discipline, and to the rates and enrollments of actual service, are reported to this board in order to regulate the hinge of state."

5. The Board of Punishments "has the government and direction of punishments throughout the empire for the purpose of aiding the sovereign in correcting the people. Whatever appertains to measures for applying the laws with leniency or severity, to the task of hearing evidence and giving decisions, to the rights of granting pardons, reprieves, or otherwise, and to the rates of fines and interest, are all reported to this board, to aid in giving dignity to national manners."

6. The Board of Works "has the government and direction of the public works throughout the empire, together with the current expenses of the same, for the purpose of aiding the emperor to keep the people in a state of repose. Whatever appertains to plans for buildings of wood or earth, to the forms of useful instruments, to the laws for stopping up or opening channels, and to the ordinances for constructing the mausolea and temples, are reported to this board, in order to perfect the national works."